Abstract
The traditional Chinese technological ideal focuses on harmonious relationships among humans; between humans and nature, society and tools; and between the body and the mind in technological activities. These basic characteristics contributed to technological innovations and progress in the era of the natural economy, but, to some extent, they hindered the transformation of technology from the traditional to the modern mode and the progress of modern technology in China. It is necessary to understand the essence of the traditional Chinese technological ideal to reflect on and eliminate its historical limitations, and to better coordinate the relationship between technological development and social life to benefit human survival and prosperity.
Keywords
The traditional Chinese technological ideal, rooted in traditional Chinese culture, features the aspects of basic categories, ideological systems and research methods. This means that it emphasizes the relationship between related elements, such as a harmonious relationship between the operator and the tool, and the demands and feelings of the subject in technological activities. From this perspective, the traditional Chinese technological ideal can be understood as a harmonious technological ideal that has exerted a profound influence on the progress of traditional technology and has inspired the development of modern technology.
Basic characteristics of the traditional Chinese technological ideal
The traditional Chinese technological ideal features harmonious relationships among humans; between humans and nature, society and tools; and between the body and the mind in technological activities.
Harmony between humans and nature—‘conforming to nature’
The traditional Chinese technological ideal takes the natural features of things as the highest order, and adaptation to the laws of natural changes as a priority in technological activities. ‘Nature’ in this concept is the natural state towards which technological activities tend, rather than the state caused by human behaviour.
Laozi said: ‘Man models himself after the Earth, the Earth models itself after Heaven, Heaven models itself after the Tao, and the Tao models itself after Nature’ (Chen, 2006, p. 169). ‘Man models himself after the Earth’ means that human practice should adapt to the laws of natural changes on the Earth. ‘The Earth models itself after Heaven’ means that everything on the Earth should adapt to the changes in the weather, which is most apparent in farming. ‘Heaven models itself after the Tao’ means that changes in the universe follow the intrinsic Tao; that is, the reasonable and optimal way to create and nurture. ‘The Tao models itself after Nature’ means that the reasonable and optimal way of the Tao must be in accordance with the inherent nature of things (Wang, 2005).
‘Conforming to nature’ means that, while engaging in technological activities, humans must follow the Tao's guidance and change the natural world in accordance with the nature of things rather than passively waiting and obeying whatever comes. Thus, dynamic stability between humans and nature can be established, and the sustainable development of human beings can be guaranteed. According to the optimal requirements of the Tao, conforming to nature means making full use of the power of nature to achieve the expectations of human beings, with minimal human input and maximum profit. If technological activities are guided by the Tao to obtain an integrated and long-term benefit relating to the survival and development of human beings, any change and remaking of nature is justified and reasonable.
Ancient Chinese engineering technology conformed to nature by making the maximum use of natural elements in operations and making full use of renewable resources in nature. For example, ventilation, drainage, support, backfilling and even the recycling of biological vulcanized iron were considered during coalmining to avoid significant environmental pollution (Liu and Zeng, 1991, pp. 31–33). Meanwhile, the conflicting relationship between the early development of modern Western technology and the ecology is widely known. Due to overconsumption of non-renewable resources, and the replacement of natural elements by artificial elements, environmental pollution became a serious problem.
Harmony between humans and society—‘statecraft ideology for practical utility’
‘Statecraft ideology for practical utility’ is a guiding principle for the choice of traditional Chinese technology and the criterion for the social assessment of technology. ‘Statecraft ideology’ means that technological development prioritizes the design of the political system, and ‘practical utility’ assumes a secondary role and must be subject to the requirements of statecraft ideology. The standard of practical utility is not based simply on economic interests, but on the unity of economic and social benefits. Economic demands should be strictly confined when they tend to threaten the stability of social structures, even if certain technological activities have practical value and can yield considerable economic benefit. Such a principle is not likely to be accepted in Western society, which emphasizes industrial and commercial gains. This regulation, however, has a specific significance in traditional Chinese culture and is important for the construction of a harmonious relationship between humans and society in technological activities.
If emphasis is placed on material wealth in the manufacture and circulation of luxury goods for the lavish pleasure of a few, it will result in significant social polarization and instability in the natural economy. Therefore, to achieve the goal of statecraft ideology for practical utility, the idea of restraining extravagance must be considered an essential measure to ensure a harmonious relationship between the development of technology and society. The fight against diabolic tricks, wicked practices, extravagance and waste has been a major theme since before the Qin Dynasty in tackling problems and conflicts in the development of technology and society. For practical purposes, ancient Chinese technological products were designed in line with consumers' convenience, with the aim of preventing accidents. This emphasis on practical objectives served to save manpower and material resources and to rectify the general social mood in the natural economy. On the contrary, in the early stage of the market economy, modern Western technology considered economic interest the primary objective and neglected the convenience of the operators and consumers, the conservation of resources, and the social benefits of technological products to a certain extent.
Harmony among humans— ‘dominating technique by the Tao’
Traditional Chinese technology emphasizes moral constraints on the application of technology. The idea of ‘dominating technique by the Tao’ is a principal requirement that considers the Tao as the highest morality, and technique as technological activities to achieve economic interests. This pre-Qin Confucian concept stresses the macrosocial effects of engineering technology and strives to constrain and eliminate the negative impacts of inappropriate applications of technology and to achieve a harmonious relationship among humans in their technological activities.
Confucius argued in The Analects that one should ‘set your heart on the Tao, base yourself on virtue, lean upon benevolence and seek relaxation and enjoyment in the arts’ (as cited in Yang, 1980, p. 67). Morality is here taken as the ideological basis of all social activities, including activities concerning technology. The Mohist argument of ‘dominating technology by morality’ focuses on moral constraints on the individual craftsman in technological activities. Yu the Great, who conquered the great flood in Chinese legend, is the personification of wisdom, perseverance and selfless devotion: a highly glorified example for the Mohist disciples (Mei and Li, 1992, pp. 88–89, 285). Zhuangzi said in Zhuangzi that ‘most Mohist disciples should take coarse clothes and straw sandals, working endlessly day and night to bring vexation on themselves’ and that ‘those who cannot follow this way of life should not call themselves Mohists’ (as cited in Guo, 2005, p. 196).
Since the Qin Dynasty, a generally stable moral code has been established with the development of technology, which requires benefiting the country and the people as the ideal in the application of technology. It also requires that technical staff in all trades work hard and with care, respect their superiors and abide by the rules in all professional activities. Most people of later generations who learned skills in the teacher–apprentice system followed this tradition. Only those who met these requirements in technological activities were called ‘people with the Tao’. Many well-known ancient Chinese craftsmen were known to have high moral character. In addition, skills and moral education were considered to have equal importance in the process of apprenticeship. The ancient Chinese technological morality, which values loyalty above material gains, forms an obvious contrast to the modern Western utilitarian ethical ideal.
Harmony between humans and tools—‘inventing implements by imitating images’
Technological inventors in ancient China followed the principle of ‘inventing implements by imitating images’, which emphasizes that the duty of Heaven is implemented by humans. This principle derives from an idea in Zhouyi-Xici: ‘Zhouyi contains the following four aspects of the Tao of sages: speaking by imitating principles, acting by imitating changes, inventing implements by imitating images, and telling the future by imitating divination' (Guo, 2005, p. 47). As an ideological principle, ‘inventing implements by imitating images’ aims to encourage the craftsman to learn from nature and abstract the essential image from the natural world, in order to acquire an inner vision of inventions. The operator's physical strength and convenience are considered when deciding the size of facilities to achieve the optimal effect. Such ideological characteristics can be seen in many inventions throughout Chinese history. A typical example is the 2nd-century invention of the crank handle—a tool adopted in the West more than a thousand years later. The crank handle was used in rotary winnowers and other machines. With the crank vertical to the wheel, the rotation of the wheel could save much energy (Temple, trans. 1995, p. 82).
The traditional Chinese technique also attends to the operator's physiological characteristics in the design and method of operation. For example, it is recorded in Kaogong Ji (The Artificers' Record) that in the design of carts, the diameter of the wheel catered to human height and convenience in getting on and off. Based on this design, the best ratio of the round track wheel and other parts of the carts was worked out (Liu, 1990, pp. 551– 552). Shen Kuo's Mengxi Bitan (Dream Pool Essays) also states that palace steps should be designed in accordance with the scale of the royal sedan chair. To ensure convenient operation of the vehicle, the steps were categorized into those for steep roads, slow roads and flat roads (Shen, trans. 1995, p. 127).
Harmony between the body and the mind—‘integrating art and technique’
A fable in Zhuangzi titled ‘The dexterous butcher’ tells the story of an ideally harmonious relationship between the body and the mind in technological activities. In the fable, when Paoding began his career as a butcher, he saw an ox as an undivided whole, but three years later he could see the bones, flesh, tendons and gaps between the joints. By carving into the gaps when slaughtering an ox, his knife remained sharp for years. ‘Dancing’ the knife in accordance with a rhythm, he could carve up an entire ox in an instant and appreciate his work in a calm and natural mood, like an artist.
Paoding's skill depended on a tacit agreement between the mind and the hand and high integration of deep inner experience with skilled handicraft. Many outstanding craftsmen throughout Chinese history possessed such skills. Idiomatic Chinese expressions such as ‘craft', ‘skills’ and ‘consummate skill’ all reflect the ideal of integrating technique and art. Craftsmen would regard technological activities as the art of mental and physical pleasure, and thus could endure hard work that needs labour-saving, high-efficiency and graceful movements, and finally produce marvellous products. By contrast, the inventors of machines in the West did not fully consider the psychological needs of the workers in the early stages of the Industrial Revolution, leading to individual skills submerging in technical regulations and reflecting neither the intrinsic value of technique nor mental or physical pleasure.
The traditional Chinese technological ideal helps to eliminate or mitigate unnecessary conflicts among elements in technological activities. The harmonious technological ideal explains why traditional Chinese technology was able to reach an advanced standard in many fields from the 1st to the 14th century.
Similarly, the ideal of a harmonious relationship among Heaven, Earth and humans has contributed significantly to the sustainable and stable development of farming over thousands of years in the history of China. In particular, the concept of land conservation makes long-term farming possible while maintaining a rich diversity of species and a fertile supply of land resources.
Moreover, the harmonious technological ideal also helped to achieve a number of technological innovations, such as the collar harness for horses, the oar, the watertight bulkheads of ships, and the bed censer, all of which prove the harmonious relationship between humans and facilities. Hydraulic engineering achievements, such as the Dujiangyan irrigation system and the Lingqu canal, which made full use of local natural resources and minimized environmental changes, also embody the harmonious relationship between humans and society and between humans and nature.
The limitations of the traditional Chinese technological ideal
The traditional Chinese technological ideal has contributed a lot to technological inventions and progress in the natural economy. However, it also constrains the transformation from traditional to modern technology. Compared to modern technology, traditional Chinese technology has the following limitations.
Poor at transforming nature at large scale and weak in competition
The ideal of ‘conforming to nature’ is significant in eliminating and avoiding the undesirable side-effects of technological activities.
However, it can find only a narrow application and can be realized only within the framework of the natural economy. Thus, it cannot meet the demands of continuous development of human society.
With limited resources in the natural economy, the traditional ideal could ensure healthy and orderly progress in technological activities with a slow pace, stronger cyclic utilization and a poor sense of competition. These defects would lead to the failure of local and traditional Chinese technology when confronted with challenges from modern Western technology. The ideal of ‘conforming to nature’ prevents humans' process of transforming nature and is weak in competition, leading to difficulties in its progress.
Traditional Chinese technology's inefficiency in transforming nature at large scale is manifested in its emphasis on human power while ignoring the use of natural power through technological innovation. For example, China started to smelt iron using coal in the Han Dynasty and with coke in the Ming Dynasty (a century earlier than Europe), and oil and gas were first discovered during the Han Dynasty. However, the potential of all those resources was largely ignored and they were used only at a small scale (Temple, trans. 1995, pp. 30–33). In another example, mills to manufacture gunpowder were established in the Northern Song Dynasty. Despite the fact that firearms have tremendous power, the use of gunpowder was restricted, and edged and pointed arms remained the major weapons on the battlefield at that time.
Manual labour was dominant in various technological activities. The motivation for this was based on Chinese economic and cultural beliefs. First, manual labour itself was not a commodity in the natural economy, and thus the development of natural forces that occurred in the commercial economy was restricted in ancient China. Second, orthodox Confucianism seriously separated the craftsman tradition from the scholar tradition. Most illiterate craftsmen found it difficult to grasp systematic and theoretical knowledge for technological advancement and for economic and political gains. With low social status and poor economic conditions, the craftsmen had no power to engage in the invention of large-scale machinery. In addition, manual labour was regarded as fundamental to life and as a means of spiritual purification. Winning through the development and use of natural forces was regarded as ‘opportunism’ and was severely restricted.
Conservative and empirical in terms of practical objectives
The practical concept of traditional Chinese technology is conservative. Once the concept has been set, people are usually required to adapt to it and pass it on for generations. An emerging technology can be excluded for being ‘impractical’ when users are unfamiliar with the devices that use the technology. Skills and products relating to new technology can be upgraded quickly in the Western market economy, but that could take a long time in ancient China. The promotion and use of a new technology relies heavily on certain social and political factors. Such practical objectives may pose barriers to technological innovation.
With intense relativity and particularity, the practical objectives depend mainly on people's intuitive grasp and assessment. Thus, the standardization of the products using new technology is rare, making them difficult to circulate and transform into mass production. Without standardization, the craftsman needs to make more effort to trim and polish the parts of a machine in order to make them match with each other. With an increasing particularity in this process, some parts will be difficult to replace after damage, and thus the profit from maintaining the machine will be unimaginably low. Moreover, the use of traditional technology is often empirical, and considers the absence of accidents as the major target. This has had negative effects on the development of modern Chinese technology.
Concerns about waste prevention in the process of production occurred due to ignorance of modern technology. For example, in the early stages of the introduction and development of modern technology, the parts of certain machines were polished to cope with the problem of assembly precision. Some machines were overused without due maintenance. Some mechanical components therefore failed to maintain the required standard due to wear and tear. The majority of administrators were reluctant to renew technological standards even though there was a desperate demand in the market.
The traditional Chinese concept of technology is superior to the Western concept in its coordination of technological and social relations and its avoidance of excessive exploitation of resources. However, it is inferior in its failure to adequately utilize natural resources. Based solely on experience, it is challenging to avoid arbitrary interpretation and self-interest. In addition, the traditional Chinese concept of technology becomes an obstacle to the dissemination of the scientific spirit, which is regarded as the ideological basis for modern technology.
Neglect of equipment renewal
In ancient China, the first people who invented tools were regarded as saints. They included Shen Nong, the inventor of the plough; Chui, the inventor of the rule and yardstick; Gong Gu and Dai Di, the inventors of the boat; and Ji Guang, the inventor of the wooden vehicle (Liu, 1988, pp. 10–14). However, no major improvement was made to those inventions for a long time. People of later generations just passed them down without making any changes. This is what one Chinese saying signifies: ‘The wise men create tools. The skilled workmen take them as inheritance, and pass down their essentials to the following generations. This is known as craftsmanship.’ (Wen, 1993, p. 117).
Moreover, scrupulously following ancestral doctrine was a basic requirement within the teacher–apprentice system in ancient Chinese craftsmanship. Neither technology nor tools were allowed to be changed or replaced, and those that were privately improved would be categorized as ‘foxy contrivances’. The craftsmen therefore developed a tradition of maintaining the start-up system and following its rules and regulations. For example, the wooden plough and the spinning wheel were invented in the Han Dynasty and did not change much for a thousand years. This implies that those artefacts had been invented in the light of the convenience of the operator, but were not developed further.
Lack of renewal of equipment led craftsmen to make more effort to improve their personal skills, which were difficult to popularize because they were owned by individuals. Therefore, once those skills were lost in time, craftsmen of the future were unable to replicate previous designs. In addition, the handling of tools was often a matter of individual skills. All professionals in ancient China had their own dedicated tools and equipment. This helped the development of individual skills but greatly restricted improvements in those tools. The vast majority of tools and machinery were locally manufactured based on demand, and multiple-skilled craftsmen could make various mechanical tools themselves. Moreover, there was no professional standard for the manufacture of tools and machines, making it hard to make any improvement in precision and efficiency. Thus, the road to transformation from the handicraft industry to modern industry was blocked.
The contemporary value of the traditional Chinese technological ideal
Most concepts of traditional Chinese technology that were rooted in the natural economy could not keep step with developments in modern technology. However, certain aspects of those concepts are valuable in contemporary social life.
‘Conforming to nature’ and reforming nature in the modern sense
It would be helpful to reform nature effectively by following both the traditional ideal of conforming to nature and the idea of modern industrial civilization. The concept of conforming to nature stresses the idea of changing the natural world in technological activities in accordance with the nature of things. This idea provides a strong guarantee of dynamic stability between humans and nature. It changes people's mode of thinking and welcomes and encourages the transformation of technological activities that, in the past, have destroyed the stability between humans and nature into activities conforming to nature. The realization of the ideal of conforming to nature must be accompanied by effective systemic support and protection, which includes ethical, legal and governmental constraints.
The mood of ‘reverence for nature’ comes from the observation of facts related to the ‘revenges’ of nature after human-made reformation. Thus, people sometimes regard the idea of conforming to nature as minimizing changes to the primitive ecosystem. Such an attitude is unnecessary. It might be rational to think highly of the value of the primitive ecosystem in biology and medicine, which are closely related to biological activities. However, in fields concerning energy, materials, transportation and information, maintaining the primitive ecosystem is not possible. The development of modern civilization is increasingly reliant on the active reformation of nature. Reforming nature and conforming to nature are not opposite poles, but a highly organic unity.
‘Conforming to nature’ refers to respect for the laws of nature, rather than succumbing to unfavourable natural conditions. Nature will not automatically provide a comfortable environment for the survival and development of human beings. Human society could not have developed into its present stage if humans had not had the courage to reform nature. However, the reformation of nature should consider environmental issues and the idea of sustainable development, instead of pure passion and utilitarian purposes. The technological concept of conforming to nature can provide a broader vision to make natural reformation more effective.
‘Statecraft ideology for practical utility’ and macroeconomic control in the modern sense
The traditional Chinese concept of ‘statecraft ideology for practical utility’ is not out of place in the market economy, but requires a fresh interpretation from the perspectives of technological and social modernization to conform to new developments.
In the market economy, technological activities by enterprises are independent of each other. Those activities affect the immediate social environment and eventually the living environment of humankind as a whole. In other words, technological activities in the market economy are highly independent and discrete, while their social consequences can be comprehensive. Furthermore, the independence and discreteness of those activities can bring about a series of social problems that should be taken seriously.
One problem is that the market economy can adjust the optimal allocation of local technological activities but will not take lead in optimizing the influence of those activities on the ecological environment and social life. The Industrial Revolution has been inspired by many technological inventions and local technological progress. It has also generated a series of ecological, environmental and resource-related problems. The concept of ‘statecraft ideology for practical utility’ can contribute to detecting and controlling conflicts between technological progress and society. It can thus establish a harmonious relationship between the development of technology and the development of society in the market economy.
There persists a lack of coordination in developments in technology, the market and society. The improvement in China's market economy is a long process, and technology, as a relatively independent element, can be developed in the current economic system with macroeconomic control. Under such circumstances, a displacement among technology, the market and society can be avoided.
Certain technology might be able to yield great benefit for a particular region at a particular time, but it might become obsolete in the near future or even pose pollution-related problems in the context of globalization from a developmental point of view. The blind introduction of such technologies will cause enormous waste as well as serious social problems. Advanced technology requires high-quality staff for its operation, advanced management systems to maintain efficiency, and a strong culture of enterprises to fulfil its role. The major problem is that the corporate culture suited to modern technology lags behind, so it is necessary to adopt the strategy of ‘statecraft ideology for practical utility’. The aims are to establish a harmonious culture of technology, combine the rational component in traditional Chinese culture with modern technological management and develop a corporate culture with Chinese features. This can guarantee the ideal development of technology.
Preventing improper application of technology by ‘dominating technology by morality’
‘Dominating technology by morality’ means making the ethical evaluation of social consequences a major concern while engaging in technological activities. The traditional claims against ‘foxy contrivances’ and for restraining extravagance are still significant in preventing the improper application of technology, even though they were developed in the natural economy in China. What is technologically reasonable is not necessarily ethically right. Without moral restraints, technological advances will only be means for utilitarian purposes.
Traditional Western ethics are concerned more about moral virtue and social order and less about the ethical relationship between humans and nature. Not until recently has that relationship emerged as an important issue. By contrast, as early as before the Qin Dynasty, the Chinese senses of Tao and virtue were involved in the understanding of the ethical ideal: ‘being kind to all people and loving live beings', and ‘loving the people and creating advantageous conditions for things’, which enabled positive and effective measures for the maintenance of the ecological environment, and the harmonious relationship between body and mind and between the operator and his or her tools in technological activities. An ethical concept that pays too much attention to utilitarian purposes leads to the excessive exploitation of nature. Therefore, the idea of ‘dominating technology by morality’ is particularly important when considering the ecological crisis and improper application of technology brought about by the excessive exploitation of nature in industrial society.
It is generally accepted that tools should be produced and methods for their operation should be designed in accordance with the physiological characteristics of human beings. However, driven by economic interests, the design of tools now rarely considers this, sometimes resulting in disharmony between humans and their tools. The renovation of tools would become a weapon for strife when it is solely for economic profit. Thus, justice cannot be maintained if the power of tools is concentrated in the hands of a few. New technological goals proposed in the application of those tools thus might not be reasonable or optimal. And the design of some technological products might exceed the needs of users, resulting in functional redundancy. But developers still profit from this. Furthermore, some technological products might not be controllable. In conclusion, the concept of ‘dominating technology by morality’ must be adhered to in the modern sense to avoid harms to humans.
Disharmony in technological activities continues to increase. For instance, greenhouse gas emissions have intensified the disharmony between humans and nature, and military competition threatens harmonious social existence. A variety of technological devices have been invented simply to meet sensory demands and even overstimulate people. Those activities have harmful effects on physical and mental health.
Under these circumstances, the traditional Chinese technological ideal assumes new significance and value. The pursuit of a harmonious relationship among the elements involved in technological activities is a process approaching the unity of truth, the good and the beautiful. To better coordinate technological developments and the social lives of people, it is necessary to grasp the essential concept of the traditional Chinese technological ideal and to reflect on and eliminate its historical limitations.
Footnotes
Author biographies
Qian Wang is a professor at the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences of Dalian University of Technology. His research interests include the intellectual history of science and technology, the ethics of science and technology, and the philosophy of technology.
Mingli Qin is a professor at the School of Foreign Languages of Dalian University of Technology. His research interests are the history of Western thought and hermeneutics.
Linlin Xu is an associate professor at Shenyang Normal University. Her research interests are the philosophy of technology and the ethics of science and technology.