Dewey and China's Encounters With the West

The extraordinary event of John Dewey's more than two-year stay in China at a time when the country was undergoing an imminent and profound historical transformation, as well as the subsequent rise and fall of his influence, merits analysis on many levels. The most comprehensive and in-depth analysis can be found in Zhang and Garrison's edited book, John Dewey and Chinese Education: A Centennial Reflection. The book does more than investigating this event from historical and sociocultural perspectives. It includes comparative and philosophical analyses of Dewey's philosophical and educational ideas in dialogue with Chinese and Eastern thoughts, highlighting the many lessons we can learn as we consider the future of a nation that, once again, is at a critical period of historical change and transformation. It demonstrates how the interaction of Deweyan and Chinese ideas can be generative and transformative for both the Chinese and the West.

As explored by the book's contributors, one of the most fascinating, yet deeply intriguing aspects of Dewey's visit is how tremendously influential he was at the time of his visit but how quickly that influence faded, as well as how his influence fluctuated in China over the course of the century. The enthusiasm he received during his visit, the subsequent denunciation and replacement of Dewey with Marxism and Leninism, and the recent revival of Dewey studies in China, raise the question of how his philosophical and educational ideas meet China's historical and political challenges, and how the interaction can create opportunities or alter the course of history. The first part of this book (Chapters One to Seven) is devoted to assessing the different aspects of the historical event and its contemporary significance.

Dewey and his wife arrived in China on April 30, 1919, for an invited short visit, but the May 4th movement and the ensuing social upheaval occurred soon after. Dewey was drawn to these social movements and remained in China until August 2, 1921. In more than two years, he delivered over 200 lectures across the country, introducing his ideas on philosophy, politics, society, and education, to an attentive audience of Chinese intellectuals and the general public. At a time when Chinese intellectuals were searching for new ideas to transform China's backward status and get out of its half-colonized, half-feudal state, Dewey, who was introduced as a world-class philosopher and educator from the US, brought provocative ideas of democracy and science and contributed to these intellectuals’ enlightenment. What most excited and inspired them was the profound sense of resonance between Dewey's philosophical and educational ideas and Chinese traditional thoughts, particularly those of the Confucians. However, in spite of the profound resonance, Deweyan fever in China quickly subsided, and the much more radical and transformative approach of Marxism and Leninism eventually gained ground. This book explores this intriguing historical development.

Consider Dewey's concept of democracy as an associated way of life with no fixed forms, changing according to specific situations and historical stages. In one of his most well-known statements on the concept of democracy, Dewey wrote that “a democracy is more than a form of government; it is primarily a mode of associated living, of conjoint communicated experience” (1916/1985, p. 93). Democracy functions as a moral ideal, and we need “to get rid of the habit of thinking of democracy as something institutional and external and to acquire the habit of treating it as a way of personal life” (1939/1988, p. 228). Dewey emphasized the substance of the democratic form of life, which is characterized by cultivating certain habits and dispositions of the individual, rather than a type of “political mechanism that will work as long as citizens are reasonably faithful in performing political duties” (1988, p. 225). Despite democracy being a foreign concept, ideas about the ideal society and the intimate relationship between the individual and society ring familiar to Chinese ears. Dewey's educational ideas, particularly about children's education contributing to society as associated living, also resonated and inspired the creation of a new modern school. Chinese reformers hoped that the new schooling model would result in the desired social, cultural, and political changes. Chinese intellectuals believed that Dewey offered a pedagogical project that emphasized the child's individuality and students’ citizenship as crucial to a progressive and democratic society.

However, the concept of democracy as a way of life, as well as Dewey's amelioration approach to social reform, did not encourage or ensure radical structural change that was perceived to be needed at the time. The resonance of Dewey's ideas with Confucian thoughts was also viewed as failing to provide the opportunity to change the historical trajectory to meet the urgent needs of the time. The profound sense of humiliation caused by repeated defeats at the hands of world powers, combined with the perception that the country was being dragged down by its tradition and falling behind the rest of the world, eventually drove Chinese intellectuals to seek more radical ideas to effect political and social change. At this critical historical juncture, the Chinese were drawn to a more revolutionary social change program, and eventually, Marxism and Communism, which promote smashing the old world to build the new, won out.

The book examines this historical development from a variety of perspectives, mentioning Dewey's own ethnocentrism and lack of engagement with the Chinese context. The attention paid to the misunderstanding and misinterpretation of Dewey at the time is of particular interest. Contributors contend that Dewey's ideas were misunderstood or misapplied in the 1920s and 1930s. Kang Zhao observes that Hu Shi, Dewey's student and one of the most influential intellectuals at the time, only presented Dewey's philosophy as a method, and Lei Wang identifies three key misconceptions about his philosophy in the Chinese reception of his ideas in the first half of the twentieth century. There are various reasons for the misinterpretation, and one can imagine the misfit of Dewey's ideas and the perceived urgent political and social needs of the time that may have played a role. The misinterpretation may have signaled the difficulties intellectuals have felt toward placing Dewey comfortably in the context. To what extent, for example, can Dewey be framed as akin to or an extension of Confucian thoughts? To what extent does it represent the Western democratic and scientific approach capable of transforming China? How should we take Dewey's words and ideas literally and wholesale, while leaving room for other approaches brought to China?

Later, Dewey became a symbol of the corrupted Western influence and the enemy of the Chinese people. The complete rejection of Dewey during 1949–1976 appears to have been an ideological and political move that clearly indicates a diversion of China's path from Deweyan deeply democratic spirit and the Confucian ideal of social life.

What is interesting, and in my view, deserves more exploration than given in the book, is the question of the current renaissance of Dewey in China. Since the reform and opening-up, Dewey has enjoyed a resurgence in popularity in China, especially in recent years. According to the contributors, Dewey's entire body of work was translated and published in the 2010s, and all education students are required to study Dewey before graduating. Dewey's philosophy is frequently compared to Marxism and Confucianism, the two dominant schools of thought in contemporary China. Dewey is much more thoroughly studied and enthusiastically embraced in China than he is in his native country, the US. While his philosophy in and of itself is certainly sufficient to draw fruitful comparison and analysis, it is also intriguing to consider how and why the larger social-political context encouraged such revival, especially given that the Chinese state continues to play a key role in mediating its intellectual research and educational reform. China's recent launch of its national project of becoming a competitive global power with a socialist and Confucian identity has undoubtedly played a role. To accomplish this goal, the state has brought back some of the de-related Confucian ideals, such as lideshuren (立德树人), and reaffirmed its unwavering faith in the Communist Party and the socialist system to promote social cohesion. At this juncture of nationalism and globalism, Dewey becomes more appealing as the Western/American philosopher and educator whose emphasis on democracy and science does not necessarily pose an inherent threat of disruption and radical change but can instead aid in bridging the China–West divide.

Dewey thus had a significant, albeit complicated relationship with China during the two crucial periods of China's history, the May 4th movement and its attempt to become a global power. This complex relationship reveals much about China's historical challenges and opportunities at various points in time. It is fascinating to ponder these relationships while reading this book about Dewey's ups and downs over the years.

The other significant part of the book is devoted to the contributors’ cross-cultural and comparative analysis of Dewey's philosophical and educational ideas. An international group of scholars with expertise in Chinese studies, comparative philosophy, and the philosophy of education, investigated the similarities and differences between Deweyan and Eastern philosophies, primarily Buddhism and Confucianism. Dialogues between Dewey and Eastern philosophies are proposed on the topics of self-cultivation, person becoming, humanistic education, and the construction of democratic communities.

The most interesting aspect of the investigation is how Dewey's focus on the intellectual, ethical, and aesthetic experiences of each person connects to the concept of self-cultivation in Eastern philosophies, especially Confucianism and Buddhism. Not only Dewey's unique emphasis on the social nature of the self, his humanist spirit, and pragmatic approach resonates deeply with the Chinese philosophical tradition, but the shared approach may also create a new vision from which the West can benefit. This demonstrates how a deep dialogue between Deweyan and Chinese ideas can transform both. These explorations further testify the deep resonance of Dewey's philosophy and educational thought and the Chinese tradition, and explain how it has exerted such an influence at the pivotal times of China's modern history.

In short, this book is relevant for both China and the West, and it makes promising attempts to connect them. It is comprehensive, with impressive breadth and depth. This book will be a fantastic read for anyone who wants to understand the history of China's encounters with the West and its struggle to find a place in the global world.