Chronic post-surgical pain (CPSP) is a recognised adverse consequence of surgery; surgery is common, therefore the population at risk is considerable.
Putative risk factors for CPSP include genetic predisposition, demographic, clinical (pain history, type of surgery, anaesthesia, acute pain severity), and psychological factors (vulnerability vs resilience).
Evidence of prevention is limited: long-term benefit from pre-emptive/perioperative analgesia has not been demonstrated consistently.
Large scale prospective studies with detailed pre, intra and postoperative multifactorial assessments are required to refine understanding of the aetiology and prognosis of CPSP.
SmithWCSBourneDSquairJPhillipsDOChambersWA. A retrospective cohort study of post mastectomy pain syndrome. Pain1999; 83:91–95.
4.
PoobalanASBruceJSmithWCSKingPMKrukowskiZH. A review of chronic pain after inguinal herniorrhaphyClin J Pain2003; 19 (1):48–54.
5.
SteegersMAHSnikDMVerhagenAFvan der DriftMAWilder-SmithOHG. Only half of the chronic pain after thoracic surgery shows a neuropathic componentJ Pain2008; 9 (10):955–61.
AlfieriSRotondiFDi GiorgioAFumagalliUSalzanoA(Groin Pain Trial Group). Influence of preservation versus division of ilioinguinal, iliohypogastric, and genital nerves during open mesh herniorrhaphy: prospective multicentric study of chronic pain. Ann Surg2006; 243 (4):553–8.
9.
PoobalanASBruceJKingPMChambersWAKrukowskiZH. Chronic pain and quality of life following open inguinal hernia repair. Brit J Surg2001; 88 (8):1122–6.
10.
CrombieIKDaviesHTOMacraeWA. Cut and thrust: antecedent surgery and trauma among patients attending a chronic pain clinic. Pain1998; 76 (1–2):167–71.
11.
AasvangEKehletH. Chronic postoperative pain: the case of inguinal herniorrhaphy. Br J Anaesth2005; 95 (1):69–76.
12.
AasvangEKMohlBBay-NielsenMKehletH. Pain related sexual dysfunction after inguinal herniorrhaphy. Pain2006; 122 (3Acute Pain):258–63.
JungBFAhrendtGMOaklanderALDworkinRH. Neuropathic pain following breast cancer surgery: proposed classification and research update. Pain2003; 104 (102):1–13.
15.
KudelIEdwardsRRKozachikSBlockBMAgarwalS. Predictors and consequences of multiple persistent postmastectomy pains. J Pain Symptom Manage2007; 34 (6):619–27.
16.
BaronRHFeyJVBorgenPIStempelMMHardickKR. Eighteen sensations after breast cancer surgery: a 5-year comparison of sentinel lymph node biopsy and axillary lymph node dissection. Ann Surg Oncol2007; 14 (5):1653–61.
17.
MacdonaldLBruceJScottNWSmithWCSChambersWA. Long-term follow-up of breast cancer survivors with post-mastectomy pain syndrome. Brit J Cancer2005; 92 (2):225–30.
18.
WallaceMSWallaceAMLeeJDobkeMK. Pain after breast surgery: a survey of 282 women. Pain1996; 66 (2–3):195–205.
19.
JungBFHerrmannDGriggsJOaklanderALDworkinRH. Neuropathic pain associated with non-surgical treatment of breast cancer. Pain2005; 118 (1):10–14.
20.
PeuckmannVEkholmORasmussenNKGroenvoldMChristiansenP. Chronic pain and other sequelae in long-term breast cancer survivors: Nationwide survey in Denmark. Eur J Pain2009; 13:478–85.
21.
AndersenKGKehletHPersistent pain after breast cancer treatment: a critical review of risk factors and strategies for prevention. J Pain2011; 12 (7):725–46.
22.
WildgaardKRavnJNikolajsenLJakobsenEJensenTS. Consequences of persistent pain after lung cancer surgery: a nationwide questionnaire study. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand2011; 55:60–8.
23.
WildgaardKIversenMKehletH. Chronic pain after lung transplantation: a nationwide study. Clin J Pain2010; 26 (3Acute Pain):217–22.
24.
CaumoWSchmidtAPSchneiderCNBergmannJIwamotoCW. Preoperative predictors of moderate to intense acute postoperative pain in patients undergoing abdominal surgery. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand2002; 46 (10):1265–71.
25.
LiemMSvan DuynEBvan der GraafYvan VroonhovenTJ(Coala Trial Group). Recurrences after conventional anterior and laparoscopic inguinal hernia repair: a randomized comparison. Ann Surg2003; 237 (1): 136–41.
26.
WrightDPatersonCScottNHairAO'DwyerPJ. Five-year follow-up of patients undergoing laparoscopic or open groin hernia repair. Ann Surg2002; 235 (3Acute Pain):333–7.
27.
NikolajsenLIlkjærSKrønerKChristensenJHJensenTS. The influence of preamputation pain on postamputation stump and phantom pain. Pain1997; 72 (3Acute Pain):393–405.
28.
KalsoE. Memory for pain. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand1997; 415 (110):129–30.
29.
GjeiloKHKlepstadPWahbaALydersenSStensethR. Chronic pain after cardiac surgery: a prospective study. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand2010; 54:70–8.
30.
BruceJDruryNPoobalanASJeffreyRRSmithWC. The prevalence of chronic chest and leg pain following cardiac surgery: a historical cohort study. Pain2003; 104 (1–2):265–73.
31.
PageBPatersonCYoungDO'DwyerPJ. Pain from primary inguinal hernia and the effect of repair on pain. Br J Surg2002; 89 (10):1315–8.
32.
PoleshuckELKatzJAndrusCHHoganLAJungBF. Risk factors for chronic pain following breast cancer surgery: a prospective study. J Pain2006; 7 (9):626–34.
33.
Hinrichs-RockerASchulzKJarvinenILeferingRSimanskiC. Psychosocial predictors and correlates for chronic post-surgical pain (CPSP)—A systematic review. Eur J Pain doi:10.1016/j.ejpain.2008.07.015.
34.
JohnstonMVöegleC. Benefits of psychological preparation for surgery: a meta-analysis. Ann Behav Med1993; 15 (4):245–56.
35.
SullivanMJLBishopSRPivikJ. The pain catastrophizing scale: development and validation. Psychol Assess1995; 7 (4):524–32.
36.
GranotMFerberSG. The roles of catastrophising and anxiety in the prediction of postoperative pain intensity: a prospective study. Clin J Pain2005; 21:439–45.
37.
ForsytheMEDunbarMJHennigarAWSullivanMJGrossM. Prospective relation between catastrophising and residual pain following knee arthoplasty: two-year follow-up. Pain Res Manage2008; 13 (4):335–41.
KatzJPoleshuckELAndrusCHHoganLAJungBF. Risk factors for acute pain and its persistence following breast cancer surgery. Pain2005; 119 (1–3):16–25.
40.
PetersMLSommerMde RijkeJMKesselsFHeinemanE. Somatic and psychologic predictors of long-term unfavourable outcome after surgical intervention. Ann Surg2007; 245 (3Acute Pain):487–94.
41.
WantzGE. Testicular atrophy and chronic residual neuralgia as risks of inguinal hernioplasty. Surg Clin North Am1993; 73 (3Acute Pain):571–82.
42.
RavichandranDKalambeBGPainJA. Pilot randomized controlled study of preservation or division of ilioinguinal nerve in open mesh repair of inguinal hernia. Br J Surg2000; 87 (9):1166–7.
43.
GrantAMScottNWO'DwyerPJ (MRC Laparoscopic Groin Hernia Trial Group). Five-year follow-up of a randomized trial to assess pain and numbness after laparoscopic or open repair of groin hernia. Br J Surg2004; 91 (12):1570–4.
44.
ManikandanRSrirangamSJPearsonECollinsGN. Early and late morbidity after vasectomy: a comparison of chronic scrotal pain at 1 and 10 years. BJU Int2004; 93 (4):571–4.
45.
HanleyMAJensonMPSmithDGEhdeDMEdwardsWT. Preamputation pain and acute pain predict chronic pain after lower extremity amputation. J Pain2007; 8 (2):102–9.
46.
KatzJSeltzerZ. Transition from acute to chronic postsurgical pain: risk factors and protective factors. Expert Rev Neurother2009; 9 (5):723–44.
47.
DevorM. Evidence for heritability of pain in patients with traumatic neuropathy. Pain2004; 108 (1–2):200–1.
48.
DiatchenkoLSladeGDNackleyAGBhalangKSigurdssonA. Genetic basis for individual variations in pain perception and the development of a chronic pain condition. Hum Mol Genet2005; 14 (1):135–43.
49.
JoshiGPBonnetFShahR. A systematic review of randomized trials evaluating regional techniques for postthoracotomy analgesia. Anesth Analg2008; 107 (3Acute Pain):1026–40.
50.
DworkinRHMcDermottMPRajaSN. Preventing chronic postsurgical pain: how much of a difference makes a difference?Anesthesiol2010; 112 (3Acute Pain):516–8.
51.
KehletHRathmellJP. Persistent postsurgical pain: the path forward through better design of clinical studies. Anesthesiol2010; 112 (3Acute Pain):514–5.
