A manned mission to Mars has been contemplated by the world's largest space agencies for a number of years. The duration of the trip would necessitate a much longer exposure to deep space radiation than any human has ever been exposed to in the past. Concern regarding cancer risk has thus far stalled the progress of deep space exploration; however, the effect of space radiation on the cardiovascular system is significantly less well understood.
Discussion
Damage by radiation in space is mediated by a number of sources, including X-rays, protons and heavier charged atomic nuclei (HZE ions, the high-energy component of galactic cosmic rays). Previously, only lunar mission astronauts have been exposed to significant deep space radiation, with all other missions being low earth orbits only. The effect of this radiation on the human body has been inconclusively studied, and the long-term damage caused to the vascular endothelium by this radiation due to the effect of high-energy particles is not well known.
Conclusion
Current radiation shielding technology, which would be viable for use in spacecraft, would not eliminate radiation risk. Similar to how a variety of shielding techniques are used every day by radiographers, again without full risk elimination, we need to explore and better understand the effect of deep space radiation in order to ensure the safety of those on future space missions.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
CucinottaFAWuHShaversMR, et al.Radiation dosimetry and biophysical models of space radiation effects. Gravit Space Biol Bull2003; 16: 11–18.
2.
AranedaGHigginbottomDBSlodičkaL, et al.Interference of single photons emitted by entangled atoms in free space. Phys Rev Lett2018; 120: 193603.
3.
PfalznerPM. Sievert, gray and dose equivalent. J Can Assoc Radiol1983; 34: 298–300.
4.
National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP). Radiation Protection Guidance for Activities in Low-Earth Orbit. Bethesda, MD, USA: NCRP, 2000.
5.
TownsendLWCucinottaFAWilsonJW, et al.Estimates of HZE particle contributions to SPE radiation exposures on interplanetary missions. Adv Space Res1994; 14: 671–674.
6.
ZeitlinCHasslerDMCucinottaFA, et al.Measurements of energetic particle radiation in transit to Mars on the Mars Science Laboratory. Science2013; 340: 1080–1084.
7.
NelsonG. Space radiation and human exposures, a primer. Radiat Res2016; 185: 349–358.
8.
CasolinoMBidoliVMorselliA, et al.Space travel: dual origins of light flashes seen in space. Nature2003; 422: 680.
9.
Badhwar GD. Deep space radiation sources, models, and environmental uncertainty. In: Wilson JW, Miller J, Konradi A, Cucinotta FA (eds) Shielding strategies for human space exploration. NASA Conference Publication 3360. NASA Langley Research Center, Hampton, VA, USA, 1997, pp. 17–28.
10.
CucinottaFAKimMHRenL. Evaluating shielding effectiveness for reducing space radiation cancer risks. Radiat Meas2006; 41: 1173–1185.
11.
ReitzG. Characteristic of the radiation field in low Earth orbit and in deep space. Z Med Phys2008; 18: 233–243.
12.
ShilohYZivY. The ATM protein kinase: regulating the cellular response to genotoxic stress, and more. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol2013; 14: 197–210.
GrecoCMKunderfrancoPRubinoM, et al.DNA hydroxymethylation controls cardiomyocyte gene expression in development and hypertrophy. Nat Commun2016; 7: 12418.
15.
InafukuHKuniyoshiYYamashiroS, et al.Determination of oxidative stress and cardiac dysfunction after ischemia/reperfusion injury in isolated rat hearts. Ann Thorac Cardiovasc Surg2013; 19: 186–194.
16.
EskandariVAmirzargarAAMahmoudiMJ, et al.Gene expression and levels of IL-6 and TNFα in PBMCs correlate with severity and functional class in patients with chronic heart failure. Ir J Med Sci. Epub ahead of print 9 September 2017; DOI 10.1007/s11845-017-1680-2.
17.
HermansenSEKalstadTHowOJ, et al.Inflammation and reduced endothelial function in the course of severe acute heart failure. Transl Res2011; 157: 117–127.
18.
LaheraV. Nitric oxide: a possible new biomarker in heart failure? Relationship with pulmonary hypertension secondary to left heart failure. Clin Invest Arterioscler2017; 29: 127–128.
19.
FratiGSchironeLChimentiI, et al.An overview of the inflammatory signalling mechanisms in the myocardiumunderlying the development of diabetic cardiomyopathy. Cardiovasc Res2017; 113: 378–388.
20.
InafukuHKuniyoshiYYamashiroS, et al.Determination of oxidative stress and cardiac dysfunction after ischemia/reperfusion injury in isolated rat hearts. Ann Thorac Cardiovasc Surg2013; 19: 186–194.
21.
GradmanAHAlfayoumiF. From left ventricular hypertrophy to congestive heart failure: management of hypertensive heart disease. Prog Cardiovasc Dis2006; 48: 326–341.
22.
McCrinkKAManingJVuA, et al.β-Arrestin2 improves post-myocardial infarction heart failure via sarco(endo)plasmic reticulum Ca(2+)-ATPase-dependent positive inotropy in cardiomyocytes. Hypertension2017; 70: 972–981.
23.
GadebergHCBryantSMJamesAF, et al.Altered Na/Ca exchange distribution in ventricular myocytes from failing hearts. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol2016; 310: H262–H268.
24.
FinsenAVLundeIGSjaastadI, et al.Syndecan-4 is essential for development of concentric myocardial hypertrophy via stretch-induced activation of the calcineurin-NFAT pathway. PLoS One2011; 6: e28302.
25.
YanXSasiSPGeeH, et al.Cardiovascular risks associated with low dose ionizing particle radiation. PLoS One2014; 9: e110269. Erratum in: PLoS One 2015;10: e0142764.
Boerma M, Koturbash I, Sridharan V, et al. Cellular and molecular alterations in the heart in response to 56Fe and protons. Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Radiation Research Society. USA: Las Vegas; 2014.
28.
SasiSPYanXLeeJ, et al.Radiation-associated degenerative cardiovascular risks during normal aging and after adverse CV event 10 months post-initial exposure. J Radiat Res2014; 55(Suppl. 1): i111–i112.
29.
StearnerSPYangVVDevineRL. Cardiac injury in the aged mouse: comparative ultrastructural effects of fission spectrum neutrons and gamma rays. Radiat Res1979; 78: 429–447.
30.
SasiSPYanXZuriaga-HerreroM, et al.Different sequences of fractionated low-dose proton and single iron-radiation-induced divergent biological responses in the heart. Radiat Res2017; 188: 191–203.
31.
SoucyKGLimHKKimJH, et al.HZE 55Fe-ion irradiation induces endothelial dysfunction in rat aorta: role of xanthine oxidase. Radiat Res2011; 176: 474–485.
32.
MaoXWFavreCJFikeJR, et al.High-LET radiation-induced response of microvessels in the hippocampus. Radiat Res2010; 173: 486–493.
33.
Natarajan M, Krishnan M, Sureshkumar MA, et al. Inflammatory response of vascular endothelium exposed to space radiation. Proceedings of the NASA Human Research Program Investigators’ Workshop. USA: Galveston, 2015.
34.
GrabhamPSharmaPBigelowA, et al.Two distinct types of the inhibition of vasculogenesis by different species of charged particles. Vasc Cell2013; 5: 16.
35.
YangVVStearnerSPTylerSA. Radiation-induced changes in the fine structure of the heart: comparison of fission neutrons and 60Co gamma rays in the mouse. Radiat Res1976; 67: 344–360.
36.
YangVVAinsworthEJ. Late effects of heavy charged particles on the fine structure of the mouse coronary artery. Radiat Res1982; 91: 135–144.
37.
KoningsAWSmit SibingaCTAarnoudseMW, et al.Initial events in radiation-induced atheromatosis. II. Damage to intimal cells. Strahlentherapie1978; 154: 795–800.
38.
YuTParksBWYuS, et al.Iron-ion radiation accelerates atherosclerosis in apolipoprotein E-deficient mice. Radiat Res2011; 175: 766–773.
39.
VosJAarnoudseMWDijkF, et al.On the cellular origin and development of atheromatous plaques. A light and electron microscopic study of combined X-ray and hypercholesterolemia-induced atheromatosis in the carotid artery of the rabbit. Virchows Arch B Cell Pathol Incl Mol Pathol1983; 43: 1–16.
40.
DelpMDCharvatJMLimoliCL, et al.Apollo lunar astronauts show higher cardiovascular disease mortality: possible deep space radiation effects on the vascular endothelium. Sci Rep2016; 6: 29901.
41.
LipshultzSECochranTRFrancoVI, et al.Treatment-related cardiotoxicity in survivors of childhood cancer. Nat Rev Clin Oncol2013; 10: 697–710.
LipshultzSECochranTRFrancoVI, et al.Treatment-related cardiotoxicity in survivors of childhood cancer. Nat Rev Clin Oncol2013; 10: 697–710.
44.
AdamsMJHardenberghPHConstineLS, et al.Radiation-associatedcardiovascular disease. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol2003; 45: 55–75.
45.
FajardoLFBerthrongM. Vascular lesions following radiation. Pathol Annu1988; 23: 297–330.
46.
RussellNSHovingSHeenemanS, et al.Novel insights into pathological changes in muscular arteries of radiotherapy patients. Radiother Oncol2009; 92: 477–483.
47.
DarbySCMcGalePTaylorCW, et al.Long-term mortality from heart disease and lung cancer after radiotherapy for early breast cancer: prospective cohort study of about 300,000 women in US SEER cancer registries. Lancet Oncol2005; 6: 557–565.
48.
DarbySCEwertzMMcGaleP, et al.Risk of ischemic heart disease in women after radiotherapy for breast cancer. N Engl J Med2013; 368: 987–998.
49.
CarrZALandCEKleinermanRA, et al.Coronary heart disease after radiotherapy for peptic ulcer disease. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys2005; 61: 842–850.
50.
LittleMPAzizovaTVBazykaD, et al.Systematic review and meta-analysis of circulatory disease from exposure to low-level ionizing radiation and estimates of potential population mortality risks. Environ Health Perspect2012; 120: 1503–1511.
51.
PrestonDLShimizuYPierceDA, et al.Studies of mortality of atomic bomb survivors. Report 13: Solid cancer and noncancer disease mortality: 1950–1997. Radiat Res2003; 160: 381–407.
52.
YamadaMWongFLFujiwaraS, et al.Non-cancer disease incidence in atomic bomb survivors, 1958–1998. Radiat Res2004; 161: 622–632.
ZeitlinCHasslerDMCucinottaFA, et al.Measurements of energetic particle radiation in transit to Mars on the Mars Science Laboratory. Science2013; 340: 1080–1084.
55.
BadhwarGDNachtweyDSYangTC-H. Radiation issues for piloted Mars mission. Adv Space Res1992; 12: 195–200.
56.
BentonERBentonEV. Space radiation dosimetry in low-Earth orbit and beyond. Nucl Instrum Methods Phys Res B2001; 184: 255–294.
57.
TestardISabatierL. Biological dosimetry for astronauts: a real challenge. Mutat Res1999; 430: 315–326.
58.
National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP). Information Needed to Make Radiation Protection Recommendations for Space Missions Beyond Low-Earth Orbit. Bethesda, MD, USA: NCRP, 2006.
59.
Committee on the Evaluation of Radiation Shielding for Space Exploration. Aeronautics and Space Engineering Board. Division on Engineering and Physical Sciences. National Research Council. Managing Space Radiation Risk in the New Era of Space Exploration. Washington, DC, USA: National Academies Press, 2008.
60.
Romero-WeaverALWanXSDiffenderferES, et al.Kinetics of neutrophils in mice exposed to radiation and/or granulocyte colony-stimulating factor treatment. Radiat Res2013; 180: 177–188.
61.
van der VeenSJGhobadiGde BoerRA, et al.ACE inhibition attenuates radiation-induced cardiopulmonary damage. Radiother Oncol2015; 114: 96–103.
62.
YaromRHarperISWynchankS, et al.Effect of captopril on changes in rats' hearts induced by long-term irradiation. Radiat Res1993; 133: 187–197.
63.
BerbéeMFuQBoermaM, et al.Gamma-tocotrienol ameliorates intestinal radiation injury and reduces vascular oxidative stress after total-body irradiation by an HMG-CoA reductase-dependent mechanism. Radiat Res2009; 171: 596–605.
64.
DelpMDCharvatJMLimoliCL, et al.Apollo lunar astronauts show higher cardiovascular disease mortality: possible deep space radiation effects on the vascular endothelium. Sci Rep2016; 6: 29901.
65.
CucinottaFAWuHShaversMR, et al.Radiation dosimetry and biophysical models of space radiation effects. Gravit Space Biol Bull2003; 16: 11–18.
