Cholesterol and inflammation: The lesser the better in atherothrombosis

Abstract

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Kannel

Dawber

Kagan

et al.

Factors of risk in the development of coronary heart disease–six year follow-up experience. The Framingham Study. Ann Intern Med 1961; 55: 33–50.

Kaptoge

Di Angelantonio

Lowe

et al.

C-reactive protein concentration and risk of coronary heart disease, stroke, and mortality: An individual participant meta-analysis. Lancet 2010; 375: 132–140.

Kaptoge

Di Angelantonio

Pennells

et al.

C-reactive protein, fibrinogen, and cardiovascular disease prediction. N Engl J Med 2012; 367: 1310–1320.

Wang

Gona

Larson

et al.

Multiple biomarkers for the prediction of first major cardiovascular events and death. N Engl J Med 2006; 355: 2631–2639.

Libby

Lichtman

Hansson

. Immune effector mechanisms implicated in atherosclerosis: From mice to humans. Immunity 2013; 38: 1092–1104.

Tunon

Bäck

Badimon

et al.

Interplay between hypercholesterolemia and inflammation in atherosclerosis: Translating experimental targets into clinical practice. Eur J Prev Cardiol 2018; 25: 948–955.

Rocha

Libby

. Obesity, inflammation, and atherosclerosis. Nat Rev Cardiol 2009; 6: 399–409.

Lewington

Whitlock

Clarke

et al.

Blood cholesterol and vascular mortality by age, sex, and blood pressure: A meta-analysis of individual data from 61 prospective studies with 55,000 vascular deaths. Lancet 2007; 370: 1829–1839.

Ference

Yoo

Alesh

et al.

Effect of long-term exposure to lower low-density lipoprotein cholesterol beginning early in life on the risk of coronary heart disease: A Mendelian randomization analysis. J Am Coll Cardiol 2012; 60: 2631–2639.

10.

Ference

Ginsberg

Graham

et al.

Low-density lipoproteins cause atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. 1. Evidence from genetic, epidemiologic, and clinical studies. A consensus statement from the European Atherosclerosis Society Consensus Panel. Eur Heart J 2017; 38: 2459–2472.

11.

Baigent

Keech

Kearney

et al.

Efficacy and safety of cholesterol-lowering treatment: Prospective meta-analysis of data from 90,056 participants in 14 randomised trials of statins. Lancet 2005; 366: 1267–1278.

12.

Baigent

Blackwell

Emberson

et al.

Efficacy and safety of more intensive lowering of LDL cholesterol: A meta-analysis of data from 170,000 participants in 26 randomised trials. Lancet 2010; 376: 1670–1681.

13.

Sabatine

Giugliano

Keech

et al.

Evolocumab and clinical outcomes in patients with cardiovascular disease. N Engl J Med 2017; 376: 1713–1722.

14.

Ridker

Revkin

Amarenco

et al.

Cardiovascular efficacy and safety of bococizumab in high-risk patients. N Engl J Med 2017; 376: 1527–1539.

15.

Giugliano

Pedersen

Park

et al.

Clinical efficacy and safety of achieving very low LDL-cholesterol concentrations with the PCSK9 inhibitor evolocumab: A prespecified secondary analysis of the FOURIER trial. Lancet 2017; 390: 1962–1971.

16.

Ridker

Everett

Thuren

et al.

Antiinflammatory Therapy with Canakinumab for Atherosclerotic Disease. N Engl J Med 2017; 377: 1119–1131.

17.

Swerdlow

Holmes

Kuchenbaecker

et al.

The interleukin-6 receptor as a target for prevention of coronary heart disease: A Mendelian randomisation analysis. Lancet 2012; 379: 1214–1224.

18.

Sarwar

Butterworth

Freitag

et al.

Interleukin-6 receptor pathways in coronary heart disease: A collaborative meta-analysis of 82 studies. Lancet 2012; 379: 1205–1213.

19.

Libby

. Interleukin-1 beta as a target for atherosclerosis therapy: Biological basis of CANTOS and beyond. J Am Coll Cardiol 2017; 70: 2278–2289.

20.

Kinlay

. Low-density lipoprotein-dependent and -independent effects of cholesterol-lowering therapies on C-reactive protein: A meta-analysis. J Am Coll Cardiol 2007; 49: 2003–2009.

21.

Ito

Santos

. PCSK9 inhibition with monoclonal antibodies: modern management of hypercholesterolemia. J Clin Pharmacol 2017; 57: 7–32.

22.

Ridker

Cannon

Morrow

et al.

C-reactive protein levels and outcomes after statin therapy. N Engl J Med 2005; 352: 20–28.

23.

Bohula

Giugliano

Cannon

et al.

Achievement of dual low-density lipoprotein cholesterol and high-sensitivity C-reactive protein targets more frequent with the addition of ezetimibe to simvastatin and associated with better outcomes in IMPROVE-IT. Circulation 2015; 132: 1224–1233.

24.

Bohula

Giugliano

Leiter

et al.

Inflammatory and cholesterol risk in the FOURIER Trial (Further Cardiovascular Outcomes Research With PCSK9 Inhibition in Patients With Elevated Risk). Circulation 2018. Doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.118.034032.

25.

Miname

Santos

. [Use of C-reactive protein to prevent atherosclerosis: Between Jupiter and Mars.]. Rev Assoc Med Bras 2009; 55: 502–504.

26.

Piepoli

Hoes

Agewall

et al.

2016 European Guidelines on cardiovascular disease prevention in clinical practice: The Sixth Joint Task Force of the European Society of Cardiology and Other Societies on Cardiovascular Disease Prevention in Clinical Practice (constituted by representatives of 10 societies and by invited experts): Developed with the special contribution of the European Association for Cardiovascular Prevention & Rehabilitation (EACPR). Eur J Prev Cardiol 2016; 23: NP1–NP96.

27.

Kotseva

De Bacquer

De Backer

et al.

Lifestyle and risk factor management in people at high risk of cardiovascular disease. A report from the European Society of Cardiology European Action on Secondary and Primary Prevention by Intervention to Reduce Events (EUROASPIRE) IV cross-sectional survey in 14 European regions. Eur J Prev Cardiol 2016; 23: 2007–2018.

28.

Libby P and Rocha VZ. All roads lead to IL-6: A central hub of cardiometabolic signaling. Int J Cardiol 2018; 259: 213–215.