Sage Journals: Discover world-class research

Abstract

Auditory branding is undoubtedly becoming more important across a range of sectors. One area, in particular, that has recently seen significant growth concerns the introduction of music and soundscapes that have been specifically designed to match a particular scent (what one might think of as “audio scents” or “sonic scents”). This represents an exciting new approach to the sensory marketing of fragrance and for industries with strategic sensory goals, such as cosmetics. Crucially, techniques such as the semantic differential technique, as well as the emerging literature on crossmodal correspondences, offer both a mechanistic understanding of, and a practical framework for, those wishing to rigorously align the connotative meaning and conceptual/emotional/sensory associations of sound and scent. These developments have enabled those working in the creative industries to start moving beyond previously popular approaches to matching, or translating between the senses, that were traditionally often based on the idiosyncratic phenomenon of synaesthesia, toward a more scientific approach while nevertheless still enabling/requiring a healthy dose of artistic inspiration. In this narrative historical review, we highlight the various approaches to the systematic matching of sound with scent and review the various marketing activations that have appeared in this space recently.

Keywords

sensory marketing crossmodal correspondences audio branding scent fragrance marketing

There is, as it were, an octave of odours like an octave in music; certain odours coincide, like the keys of an instrument. (G. W. Septimus Piesse, The Art of Perfumery, 1867)

Introduction

There has been a rapid growth of interest in the field of auditory branding in recent years (see Spence & Keller, 2024, for a review). One area that has become popular is the introduction of music and soundscapes that have been specifically designed to match a particular scent (what one might think of as “audio scents” or “sonic scents”). In this narrative historical review (see Ferrari, 2015; Furley & Goldschmied, 2021, on the strengths and appropriateness of this style of review), the various approaches to the systematic matching of sound and scent that have been used are highlighted. Additionally, various recent marketing activations in this space are also discussed. The review calls attention to how techniques such as the semantic differential technique, as well as the emerging literature on crossmodal correspondences, offer both a mechanistic understanding of, and a practical framework for, those wishing to align the connotative meaning and conceptual/emotional/sensory associations of sound and scent. Such conceptual frameworks have enabled those working in the creative industries to move beyond previously popular approaches to the matching or translation between the senses that were often based on the idiosyncratic phenomenon of synaesthesia, toward a more scientific approach while nevertheless still enabling/requiring a healthy dose of artistic inspiration.

This manuscript explores the dynamic relationship between sound and scent, investigating how corresponding sensory experiences can be systematically aligned for enhanced perception in both commercial and digital contexts. We start with an introduction to the psychological underpinnings of sound–scent associations, followed by a discussion on commercializing musical perfumes. The core of the review systematically examines the alignment of sound and scent through various methodologies, including the semantic differential technique and crossmodal correspondences, while also addressing the challenges and philosophical considerations involved. The manuscript concludes by summarizing the insights gained and their implications for future research and practical applications. Ultimately, the primary focus is on the sonic design of soundscapes to match pre-existing fragrances and the aromas/flavors of specific food and drink products. That said, the occasional attempts to design scents for sounds are also mentioned briefly.

Sound has become one of luxury's most powerful tools; so read the headline of an article that appeared in the Robb Report a couple of years ago (see Alexander, 2021). Indeed, there can be little doubting that the world of sonic branding/brand identity has become increasingly important in the contexts of both academic and industry in recent years (e.g., see Knoeferle & Spence, 2021; Taylor, 2023a, b; Vidal-Mestre et al., 2022). Interestingly, while fragrance and cosmetics brands have long invested heavily on crafting their visual identities (Schifferstein & Howell, 2015; Schifferstein & Tanudjaja, 2004; Spence, 2020a, b), marketing in this sector (e.g., Bradford & Desrochers, 2009; Brady, 1978; De Luca & Botelho, 2021; Minsky et al., 2018)¹ has only recently really started to move in the direction of linking scent with specially designed sonic assets (Errajaa et al., 2023; IFF, 2023; Mensing, 2023; Rodriguez, Arboleda et al., submitted; see also Carnevale et al., 2023),² with some famous pop stars directly contributing to the market by creating their own fragrance collections (e.g., see Katy Perry).³ In fact, very recently, International Flavors & Fragrances (IFF) launched a sound logo to illustrate multisensory dimensions of scent: Named “World of Scents,” the sound is supposed to represent “how scent plays a key role to awaken the extraordinary senses” (IFF, 2023).⁴

One reason to develop sonic assets that, in some meaningful sense, match a fragrance, can be framed in terms of the emerging field of sensory (or better said, multisensory) marketing (Knoeferle & Spence, 2021; Velasco & Spence, 2019). Indeed, many practitioners are becoming increasingly interested in facilitating/enhancing their online marketing activities by capitalizing on the senses (e.g., Mahdavi et al., 2020). After all, the senses play a key role in the experience economy (Pine & Gilmore, 1998), with many premium products and services differentiating themselves as a function of the experiences that they happen to deliver. The meaningful integration of sight, sound, touch, taste, and smell⁵ has been shown to enhance the creation of memorable and authentic consumer experiences across a range of industries (Eglīte, 2021).

A multisensory approach is also crucial to the design and creation of novel products, including fragrances. For example, according to Mensing (2023, p. 225): “The quickest and most effective way to achieve new inspiration is to fuse the fragrance experience with other sensory impressions, so that the fragrance is supported by colour, form, music, and ideally also tactile and gustatory.” Indeed, most everyday experiences are multisensory in nature, thus highlighting the importance of considering the integrated impact of multiple human senses on the experiences of consumers, no matter where that might be occurring (Spence, 2021c; Velasco & Obrist, 2020; Velasco & Spence, 2019). Scents and sounds, more particularly, are crucial to consumer experiences given their putatively unique ability to evoke emotions, enhance product recall, and create a distinctive atmosphere, among others (e.g., Spence, 2021a).

For instance, in one early multisensory study on audio–olfactory interactions, Spangenberg et al. (2005) investigated the effects of combining an ambient Christmas scent (“Enchanted Christmas”) and Christmas-style music on North American consumers’ perception and evaluation of the products that were displayed in a mock retail store. The presence of Christmas music (Amy Grant's “Home for Christmas,” 1992) enhanced favorable evaluations when paired with a Christmas scent whereas music from the same artist that was not associated with Christmas diminished the participants’ evaluations. These results highlight the moderating role of background music in multisensory olfactory and musical stimuli interactions (at least in the context of a mock retail store). In summary, Spangenberg et al.'s results show that the semantic congruency (i.e., aligning sensory inputs as a function of a common identity or shared meaning, such as Christmas) between ambient scent and music led to a more favorable evaluation of the store, its merchandise, and the store environment.

Combining olfactory stimuli with sound might well also be expected to affect the purchase experience of perfumes more indirectly. Think only of how music can be used to modulate consumers’ mood/emotions when choosing fragrance, or to identify potentially liked fragrances among the ones that people with similar musical preferences tend to appreciate. Recently, Mensing (2023, p. 324) highlighted the relationship between musical preferences and contemporary trends in fragrance marketing, stating that: “Changes in style can be seen first in fashion and music before they are reflected in fragrance trends. As a trend coach for perfumers, I pay special attention to change, i.e., the increasing or decreasing acceptance of music genres.” What is more, new crossmodal approaches to fragrance shopping suggest that an individual's musical preferences may well be in some meaningful way related to their preferences for particular perfumes (see below for one example of a playful approach to sound–scent matching from https://www.fragrancedirect.co.uk/blog/fragrance/find-your-sound-with-perfume-and-music/).⁶ It is, though, an open question as to whether such crossmodal prediction represents a literal example of sensory translation (see Spence & Di Stefano, 2023, on this theme), or rather it should be considered as an example of associative learning.⁷ The Scent:

Armani My Way

The Sound:

Masego - Silver Tongue Devil

Got a tropical holiday booked? First, you’re going to want to purchase this gorgeous fragrance from Armani for its stunning fruity notes of bergamot, orange blossom, tuberose and white musk. Second, you need to add this island-vibe track to your holiday playlist pronto! From the first few seconds of the song, you’ll be hooked and picturing yourself sipping cocktails on a sun-lounger before you know it. Masego is a musical genius, fusing his saxophone melodies into many of his iconic tunes.

Importantly, shoppers are not able to smell the scents marketed online. However, a perfume brand can certainly play the appropriate jingle (perhaps heard via computer or smartphone), which may help to guide the shopper to the right scent for them (cf. Knoeferle et al., 2016; Mensing, 2023). Such developments have become crucial in recent years given the continued problems/challenges associated with the digitization of scent delivery (see Spence et al., 2017), for example, as part of digital sensory marketing campaigns (Petit et al., 2019). Looking to the future, certain marketers promise to blend online and offline through mixed reality involving olfactory auditory, and visual experiences (perhaps also incorporating the other senses as well). The integration of sound and smell in digital technology experiences, explored by academics such as Obrist et al. (2017) and Kerruish (2019) in the context of new sensory-enabling technologies has already found application in the context of virtual reality (VR), where the importance of aroma–content congruence is emphasized (Flavián et al., 2021).

Psychological Mechanisms Explaining the Links Between Sound and Scent

There is currently growing academic interest in researchers exploring the links between fragrance and sound, connecting back to the early chemist, Septimus Piesse's “Gamut of Odors” (Piesse, 1867, see Figure 1). The experimental psychology and cognitive neuroscience literature here both provide useful frameworks when it comes to thinking about how best to match sound, soundscapes,⁸ and music to scent. Perhaps the most obvious approach to connecting the two senses relies on the semantic congruence approach described above in the study of Spangenberg et al. (2005), whereby smell and sound are aligned in terms of a given identity or meaning, and therefore both denote said identity or meaning (e.g., the smell of Christmas and the sound of Christmas).

Figure 1.

Crossmodal correspondences between musical notes and odors, as suggested by Septimus Piesse (1867, pp. 42–43), are illustrated on a scale.

Perhaps less direct, another approach, the semantic differential technique (Kawachi et al., 2011; Oyama et al., 1998; Snider & Osgood, 1969), can be used to assess the key connotative (implied) meanings that people associate with fragrances (Dalton et al., 2008) as well as with music (Watt & Quinn, 2007; though see also Miller, 2021).⁹ The semantic differential technique is a tool characterized by its use of bipolar pairs of adjective (e.g., nice-awful, mild-harsh, and powerless-powerful) to help quantitatively measure the semantic meaning attributed by individuals to concepts or objects, thereby facilitating the assessment of the said connotative meanings, which are broadly categorized (often as the result of multi-dimensional scaling) along three principal dimensions: evaluation, potency, and activity (Osgood et al., 1957).

At the same time, however, the emerging literature on the crossmodal correspondences (Spence, 2011) provides an alternative framework when it comes to thinking about the multitude of connections that exist between features across the senses (that, crucially, does not rely on synaesthesia).¹⁰ For example, the literature on the crossmodal correspondences shows that most people will tend to associate the colour pink and round shapes with the taste of sweetness (Velasco et al., 2023b). What is more, crossmodal correspondences are typically transitive (meaning that if a sensory characteristic A corresponds with another B, and B corresponds with C, then A would likely correspond with C, as well). So, for example, if pink happens to be associated with sweetness, and round is also associated with sweetness, then pink should be associated with round (Deroy & Spence, 2013c). At the same time, however, a number of crossmodal correspondences between sound and scent have also now been documented (see Deroy et al., 2013). For instance, people have been shown to associate those smells described as sweet with round shapes (Hanson-Vaux et al., 2013, see Figure 2). Moreover, fruity odors are associated with high-pitched musical notes (Crisinel & Spence, 2012), while the aroma of orange and iris flower is linked to pitches that are significantly higher than those associated with the scents of musk and roasted coffee (Crisinel & Spence, 2012).

Figure 2.

What do these shapes smell like? Which of the two would you associate with a sweet smell?

Interestingly, crossmodal correspondences have been classified as a function of a series of nonmutually exclusive underlying mechanisms: These include structural, statistical, linguistic, and affective correspondences (Motoki et al., 2023; Spence, 2011; see also Ohtake et al., 2023), which can help guide the selection of congruent and incongruent sound/smell combinations to guide specific experiences involving these senses. According to Spence (2011), structural correspondences involve similarities in the neural coding in different sensory representations, such as, for example, stimulus intensity (cf. Stevens, 1957, 1971). Statistical correspondences, by contrast, are thought to arise from the internalization of the regularities of the environment (such as high-pitched sounds tending to come from higher locations in space; e.g., Parise et al., 2014). Linguistic correspondences encompass metaphorical associations based on shared linguistic descriptors (such as the word “high” being used to describe both top notes in fragrance and high-pitched sounds), while affective correspondences stem from the shared emotional associations of various stimuli, such as the link between the taste of sweetness and shape attributes like curvature, given that both are positively valenced (Spence, 2020d).

However, one of the relevant recent changes in terms of the approach to the crossmodal alignment of scent and sound, at least compared to what has been seen previously (Spence, 2021a), is that while a series of scents would typically have been released to accompany a musical or other (e.g., dance) performance, what is happening more frequently nowadays is that an individual scent is being paired with a temporally evolving soundscape or piece of music.

Commercializing Musical Perfumes: Soundscapes Designed to Match Specific Scents

Over the last few years, several perfumers and larger fragrance manufacturers have started to work on innovatively incorporating a sonic element into their promotional strategies (see Mensing, 2023). For example, the fragrance Spicebomb Infrared by Viktor & Rolf (in collaboration with L’Oréal Luxe Division) featured an original soundtrack created by Ircam Amplify. As specified by the press coverage accompanying this activation, sounds were selected that were supposed to convey the perfume's hot and spicy notes (Edelson, 2021; L’Oréal Group, 2021). According to Edelson (2021): “The sound IRCAM Amplify sound designer Romain Barthélémy created with IFF's Christophe Hérault ‘is a combination of all the sounds that bring the same kind of atmosphere. It's a mix of creative sound and ambient sound, like you’d hear in a nightclub or on the street. We mix all that and create the specific sound for the specific scent’.” The suggestion was that “The beauty of what it allows brands to do in the future is establish the universal correlation between the world of scents and the world of sounds… We believe it constitutes a real revolution for e-commerce and perfume sampling. Working with a sound that generates the same sensation as the original scent means you can eliminate the hurdle of not being able to literally smell the scent because you can now hear the fragrance.”¹¹ Earlier this year, IFF signed a partnership with IRCAM Amplify, exploring the emotional connections between sound and scent. Together, they conducted a ground-breaking study showing that a purposefully designed sound increased scent purchase intent by nearly 60 percent in an e-commerce site.¹²

Another fragrance brand, Room 1015, known for its nostalgic fragrances, inspired by the rock ‘n’ roll era, has crafted a unique approach to perfumery. They have created a soundtrack to match for each of its fragrances, combining music and scent (ROOM 1015, n.d.). Meanwhile, L’Orchestre Parfum offers a range of fragrances inspired by music, providing a dedicated soundtrack for each perfume (L’Orchestre Parfum, 2021). The emphasis, though, in the case of Jo Burzynska's perfume, Eau Tautahi, which was released together with a paired urban soundscape (Papesch, 2022), would appear to be very much on the fragrance, with the soundscape designed to complement the scent rather than vice versa. Burzynska is a sound artist and professional wine judge who created both the scent and, thereafter, the matching soundscape (see Burzynska, 2018).

Developments in the pairing of scent with sound have, though, also come from the other direction. The singer Arooj Aftab, for instance, released a fragrance to accompany her album Purple Vulture back in 2019 (Jagota, 2021). In the latter case, the primary component in the combination would appear to be the music. Meanwhile, in the case of pop stars, such as Katy Perry, who have started to create fragrances, one might question whether they should in any meaningful sense represent the same stylistic features of their music. Meanwhile, Robin Fox, an Australian musician (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robin_Fox_(Australian_musician)), created a set of fragrances that were linked to his music in 2015 (see Robin, 2015). It is worth noting that customers may respond differently were they to be informed that the music served as the source of inspiration for the creation of the fragrance¹³ or vice versa (cf. Reinoso Carvalho et al., 2015). As of yet, we are unaware of any examples where the scent and sound have actually been developed in parallel, if indeed such a creative process is even possible. Yet, this is a potentially interesting approach whereby any marketing concept might, from the start, consider how different sensory cues might be part of a cohesive storytelling strategy (cf. Velasco et al., 2018).

The interest in combining sounds with scent can also be seen in the world of fragranced Home and Personal Care products (e.g., just take the following quote from a 2007 marketing campaign: “The marketing team captured the idea of appealing to the senses with lots of colour, music, perfumes & energy,” Marco Luconi, Regional Brand Manager, Latin America, for an early attempt to match the music to the scent).¹⁴ While the above examples clearly demonstrate the interest in developing marketing strategies that are based on the combination of sound and fragrance, it seems that the criteria that have been used to incorporate sonic elements into promotional strategies of fragrances are based on the individual taste or the aesthetic/artistic view of creators. However, one could ask whether there are other ways in which to combine sound and fragrance that might be based on more objective, or at least intersubjective, criteria, and that might therefore lead to marketing campaigns that are potentially more effective in terms of communicating with, and/or engaging, the consumer. In the next section, we address this important question by examining the semantic differential technique, crossmodal correspondences, and the phenomenon of sensation transference.

Systematically Aligning (the Meaning of) Sound and Scent

Several techniques can potentially be used to help establish the connotative (not to mention the denotative) meanings of, and the crossmodal associations that can be attached with, specific sensory stimuli, such as, for example, scents and sounds. These include the semantic differential technique and the emerging literature on the crossmodal correspondences.

The Semantic Differential Technique

Importantly, recent years have seen a move away from the synaesthetic approach to translating between the senses (Haverkamp, 2014) that may well have stymied research unnecessarily (Spence, 2012, 2015a).¹⁵ Previously, researchers have used semantic differential scaling (e.g., Osgood et al., 1957; Oyama et al., 1998) in order to help define the multidimensional representation (or connotative meaning) of odours (Dalton et al., 2008). Crucially, the semantic differential technique has also been applied to music perception as well (e.g., Hacohen & Wagner, 1997; Holbrook & Huber, 1979; Miller, 2021; Scherer & Oshinsky, 1977; Windsor, 2004). Typically, the multidimensional scaling of people's responses to a range of bipolar attribute scales (viz., good-bad; strong-weak; and rough-smooth, see Figure 3, for an example) is used to help reduce complex stimuli or concepts down to three principal dimensions of meaning, namely Pleasure, Arousal, and Dominance (see, e.g., Di Stefano et al., 2024).

Figure 3.

Example of the kind of semantic differential scales that have been used in previous research.

While the administration of the semantic differential instrument is not in itself too challenging, the interpretation of the results (especially in the context of musical meaning) is a very different matter (Miller, 2021; see also Auracher et al., 2020). It can also be difficult to falsify the idea that sensory attributes can be expressed in terms of more or less underlying bipolar dimensions. In other words, when asked to evaluate a sensory characteristic (e.g., a smell or a sound) in terms of polar dimensions, it is likely that some sort of connotative meaning will always be implied. As such, it might be necessary to experimentally manipulate the different sensory characteristics in relation to a given connotative meaning in order to determine the extent to which they actually have a given meaning, one that the semantic differential technique might not necessarily capture (Woods et al., 2013). It is perhaps for these reasons that Saitis et al. (2020) advocated that there should be a movement beyond the traditional use of the semantic differential method for collecting behavioral data and toward the study of crossmodal correspondences between timbral dimensions and other sensory modalities (see also Di Stefano, 2023). At a practical level, though, the semantic differential technique might offer practitioners a way to align sensory cues in a meaningful manner.

The collaboration between scent and sound designers that gave rise to Viktor & Rolf's Spicebomb Infrared would appear to have been based on a somewhat similar approach. Writing about the collaboration, Edelson (2021) notes that “The methodology, developed internally by IRCAM, is called SPEAK, which helped the two teams find a common language. ‘Speak is a software toolbox to help people communicate when they're from two different worlds and trying to find the words,’ Tour said. ‘It's based on psycho-acoustic research based on how the brand interprets sounds. We put that in those tools, and we have a kind of semantic language: sound. We worked together to put words on something like a very subjective sound or flavour. After a couple of iterations, we came to the conclusion that it's the right message and the right sound’.” It would be interesting to know more about how SPEAK is related to approaches such as that of the Semantic Differential Technique (see https://support.ircam.fr/docs/speak/ for more information on the SPEAK approach).

Crossmodal Correspondences Between Scent and Sound

Many of the recent developments creatively connecting sound and scent have been built on the emerging literature on the crossmodal correspondences that have increasingly been documented between scents, sounds, and a host of other sensory features (e.g., Deroy et al., 2013; Di Stefano et al., 2022; Hanson-Vaux et al., 2013; Mesz et al., 2023; Rodriguez et al., 2023a; Saitis et al., 2020; Wallmark, 2019). As such, it suddenly becomes meaningful to ask: “What does a sweet and a dry smell sound like?” In fact, there has been a veritable explosion of research in “sonic seasoning” (Spence, 2017; see also Klaverstijn, 2021), that is, the matching of music to the flavor of food and drink (see Spence et al., 2019). Given that something like 75–95% of what we think we taste we actually smell (Spence, 2015b), it is obviously natural to extend the approach from matching sounds to flavors and food aromas, to the matching of soundscapes to fragrance.

Researchers have previously identified an association between both perfumery notes (Belkin et al., 1997) and selected wine-related aromas (Crisinel & Spence, 2012; see also Piesse, 1867). However, as noted recently by Zacharakis et al. (2023), the majority of the evidence that has been published to date has tended to focus on pitch-aroma correspondences with timbral-aroma relationships being largely associated with specific sound sources (i.e., classes of musical instrument, such as, for instance, wind or strings)¹⁶. Several studies conducted over the last decade or so have investigated the way in which specific scents are matched to basic musical features. Bronner et al. (2012) conducted a series of two experiments: in the first of which participants tasted or imagined two flavors (“orange” and “vanilla”),¹⁷ and performed several crossmodal associations and matching tasks. In the second study, meanwhile, short auditory clips were specially designed to yield different citrus-like sounds. Based on a matching task, their results showed that “orange” evoked bright, fairly sharp, and rough timber, staccato, accentuated, dynamic articulation, syncopated rhythm, medium to large intervals melody, mid-to-large range ambitus, and lively and fast tempo musical parameters. In contrast, “vanilla” evoked soft and dull timbre, legato, even, minimal dynamic articulation, even rhythm, small intervals and consonant melody, small range ambitus, and rather slow tempo. While these descriptors also refer to flavors, they are also dominant notes in the context of perfumery. Their results showed that manipulations along the weak–strong and acute–dull axes of intensity and roughness/brightness caused corresponding perceptions of the stimuli across the gustatory and auditory modalities.

Meanwhile, Cantu et al. (2022) conducted a study to determine sound qualities that matched freshness. These researchers conducted two online experiments in which the participants rated sensations and odor notes while listening to sounds. In this case, the results revealed that sounds in which predominant musical features included woodwind and piano instruments, low tempo, and legato articulation were able to trigger sensations and olfactory notes associated with freshness, such as humidity, outdoors, lightness, smoothness, coolness, calmness, freshness, and fruitiness, while avoiding the recall for spiciness (opposite to freshness). The same sounds were mainly associated with green and blue colors, which are usually matched with freshness.

Zacharakis et al. (2023) recently conducted a study designed to assess the strength of the crossmodal correspondence between 12 odors and 26 complex musical tones that had been intuitively chosen/created in order to match a range of odors. The olfactory stimuli consisted of vanilla, honey, caramel, cinnamon, coffee, (black) pepper, lemon, lemon blossom, pomegranate, melon cherry, and tobacco. According to the study authors, “A particular instruction was also given to ignore any conscious higher-level connections between sounds and concepts related to the source of the aromas (e.g., ‘This sounds like a buzzing bee therefore it has to be associated with honey’) but to base judgements merely on potential sensory associations as much as possible.”¹⁸ A group of 29 musically trained participants listened to the musical stimuli in a random order. They had to try and associate each sound with one of the olfactory stimuli (note that an aromatic label was provided next to each scent). The results highlighted the existence of crossmodal associations that were above chance for 20 out of the 26 synthesized sound stimuli and at least one of the 12 provided olfactory stimuli.¹⁹ These intriguing results therefore suggest that it is indeed possible to obtain reliable crossmodal associations (or matches) between complex timbres and selected aromas.

Another point to consider here is that the consensual crossmodal and conceptual associations of sounds and scents that have been highlighted in the literature on the crossmodal correspondences and the semantic differential technique are potentially different in kind from the meaning that is sometimes attached by the listener to music that has been intentionally designed (see Miller, 2021, on this theme; cf. Watt & Ash, 1998). As such, it may be difficult to know for certain the level at which such crossmodal matching should take place. To further this discussion, incorporating both explicit—that is, the stereotypical self-report—and implicit—that is, the Implicit Association Test (IAT)—measures during such assessments might prove beneficial (Rodriguez, Cantu et al., submitted). Implicit measurements primarily seek to identify underlying automatic associations, reflecting the system's responses to unconscious situations, effortlessly and without self-control (Greenwald et al., 1998). This approach allows the gathering of information about how target stimuli are associated, without explicitly instructing individuals to be aware of crossmodal correspondences (Demattè et al., 2007). In summary, implicit and explicit mechanisms evoke distinct consumer responses, not always yielding outcomes that are positively correlated (Gawronski & Hahn, 2018).

Challenges to the Matching of Scent and Sound

The language of scent and sound often overlap with similar descriptors such as top notes, bass notes, chords, harmonies, and accords being used to describe the stimuli in both modalities (see also Piesse, 1867). Moreover, speakers also often refer to both odors and sounds by mentioning their sources (Barwich, 2019; Nudds, 2010). At the same time, however, there are also a number of fundamental differences in terms of the relation between stimulus and perception in the two senses. In particular, it should be noted that there is little obvious alignment between chemical complexity and perceived complexity in the case of olfactory (or chemosensory) stimulation (e.g., Spence & Wang, 2018) whereas the link would appear to be much more apparent in the case of audition. Furthermore, the fact that scent evolves over time presumably means that any sonic composition designed to match such a scent would also need to progress temporally (cf. Mahieu et al., 2019). Here, though, another potentially important challenge arises, namely that the temporal rate of information processing in olfaction is simply much lower than it is in audition (see Gallace et al., 2012). Finally, it should be noted that researchers have long questioned whether it is even possible to experience any kind of perceptual similarity between the impressions that are available to the different senses (see Di Stefano & Spence, 2023). As such, the best that might ultimately be possible in terms of crossmodal matching is some kind of affective alignment of emotional sequences of sensations attached with the various notes and scents.

One other issue to consider relates to individual differences in crossmodal correspondences (Spence, 2022b). That is, there are undoubtedly going to be individual differences in, say, liking for individual sensory characteristics, smell thresholds, etc., as well as cultural differences in exposure to, and the meaning of, scent. So there lies an opportunity for personalization and customization. As research focuses on group level matching, there may be an opportunity here to consider individual differences in research and in practices (cf. Reinoso-Carvalho et al., 2017).

Auditory and Olfactory Objects in the Philosophy of Perception

The nature of auditory and olfactory objects has also recently attracted a growing body of interest from those scholars working in the philosophy of perception (e.g., Barwich, 2019; Millar, 2019; Nudds, 2010; Skrzypulec, 2019). One general question that is typically raised in the current debate deals with the puzzling nature of those entities that are referred to when people talk about “odours” and “sounds”. Compared to visual objects—often considered as the prototypical perceptual objects in the Western visuocentric approach (Barwich, 2019)—odors and sounds would appear to lack key properties that should constitute perceptual objecthood, such as figure-ground segregation and perceptual constancies (e.g., Barwich, 2019, though see Millar, 2019).

A common feature of sounds and odors is that speakers normally identify them indirectly, that is, by referring to their source, saying, for example, the sound of a violin or the smell of a rose. This would appear to reveal some fundamental properties of olfactory objects given that we can perceive the smell of the rose or jasmine in the absence of the source object as happens normally in the case of fragrances. Something similar might happen with sounds, but not, at least in normal perception, with visual objects: That is, the visual perception of a ship is not veridical if the object “ship” is absent. In contrast, the perception of the scent of a rose is veridical even if the rose itself is absent. The abovementioned considerations would seem to hamper any attempt to establish a consensual crossmodal match between odors and sounds based on the structural properties of the perceptual objects. Indeed, the impermanent and evanescent nature of odors and, to some extent, of sounds, make it hard for designers and creators to solidly ground the cross-sensory matching between fragrances and music on the sensory translation between structural features of the stimuli which evolve over time (see Spence & Di Stefano, 2023). Hence, alternative strategies should be developed, likely based on other kinds of crossmodal correspondences, such as those that are statistically, affectively, or semantically mediated (Motoki et al., 2023; Spence, 2011; Spence & Di Stefano, 2023).

Sensation Transference

“Sensation transference” constitutes one of the routes by which sonic attributes add value to scent. More specifically, a number of studies now show that the more the customer likes the soundtrack, jingle, or sonic logo, the more they will like the scent that happens to be associated with it (Spence, 2021c). So, for example, in related research on the topic of sonic seasoning, Reinoso-Carvalho and his colleagues showned that such hedonic transfer effects from soundscape to taste evaluation (in the case of chocolate samples) was more marked than any sonic seasoning effect leading to a change in the perceived sweetness/bitterness (Reinoso-Carvalho et al., 2020a; Reinoso-Carvalho et al., 2020b). Note that it is at least conceptually possible to separate the sensation transference associated with the affective value of the sonic and scented stimuli from the priming of sensory, conceptual, and higher-level musical associations of more complex stimuli.

Crossmodal Effects of Sound on Scent

In recent years, several fragrances have been released with accompanying music tracks. Researchers have been able to demonstrate how specific aspects of music can be used to accentuate different notes in a fine fragrance. But what impact does one sense have on people's perception and evaluation of the associated stimuli presented in the other sensory modality? Relevant here, Velasco and Spence (2022) recently conducted a study that assessed the influence of soundscapes characterized as either “dry” or “sweet” on the perceived dryness and sweetness of a fragrance, measured on a continuous scale anchored with these concepts.²⁰ They found that the fragrances were perceived as smelling significantly sweeter when they were accompanied by a sweet soundscape as compared to a dry one. Meanwhile, Velasco et al. (2014) investigated how the hedonic congruence between scent and sound stimuli influences participants’ perception of odor intensity, pleasantness, and quality. In this case, the results revealed that, contrary to expectations, broadband white noise had a more significant impact on participants’ odor ratings than musical selections, indicating a close relationship between an odor's hedonic character and its perceived quality. Participants rated the different scents used as less pleasant and less sweet when exposed to white noise, in contrast to any of the other musical conditions, varying in valence.

Though much of the research that has been published to date has attempted to assess the effect of scent on people's enjoyment of music (e.g., Zhou & Yamanaka, 2018), synergizing the senses, based on the emerging understanding of the crossmodal correspondences between scent, sound, and color looks set to continue growing in the years ahead, and may one day revolutionize the multisensory propositions that brands in strategic industries, such as cosmetics, offer their customers (Mensing, 2023; Spence, 2022a). Consider, for instance, the continuing growth of online shopping for cosmetics (Rodriguez et al., 2023b), where effectively conveying fragrance sensations through auditory and visual cues becomes vital in establishing product expectations, given the limitations of current digital experiences. When thinking about the impact of emotional trust, valence, and hedonic values on cosmetics online purchase intent (Suparno, 2020), brands may be motivated to use tailored soundtracks, crafting immersive experiences that deepen consumer emotional engagement. Simultaneously, traditional retail spaces may focus on delivering meaningful in-store experiences that captivate consumers through multisensory olfactory encounters. Augmenting the consumer experience across diverse channels can indeed dismantle physical barriers by intertwining the senses of smell and hearing.

Here one might also consider any synergistic effects that combining scent with matching soundscape might have in terms of enhancing the social, cognitive, or emotional impact of the former (see Spence, 2020c, 2021b). As such, should an especially good match be achieved, it remains an open question as to whether some kind of crossmodal emergent property or gestalt might be obtained. One might wonder, for instance, whether it could ever be possible to experience crossmodal harmony between the sense of scent and sound (Spence & Di Stefano, 2022; see also Velasco et al., 2023a).

Another innovative approach to the use of sound to crossmodally enhance scent/aroma came from a project with Courvoisier Cognac a decade ago, where specific timbres (e.g., harp, strings, piano) were associated with six olfactory notes (such as coffee, ginger biscuits, candied orange) that can be found in the flavour of the cognac (Crisinel et al., 2013). In this activation, customers were encouraged to smell each of the six aromas while listening to the matching sound clip. Once they had established the link between the olfactory notes and the specific matching sounds, the idea was that when they then tasted a glass of the actual cognac, they would listen to a musical composition that incorporated all of the various instrumental timbres (associated with the six specific olfactory notes) and thus that the music would help to structure and to accentuate the various olfactory notes in the temporally evolving flavor of the cognac. A similar approach has subsequently been successfully used by a number of other drinks brands (see https://www.international-sound-awards.com/overview_isa2017/nominations-isa2017/chivas-ultis/; Spence et al., 2021).

Meanwhile, research by Seo and colleagues demonstrated the crossmodal effect of sound on the perception of odor. However, in most cases, the enhancement of odor perception results from the presentation of a congruent soundscape, or else olfactory perception was shown to be impaired because of exposure to noise (Walliczek-Dworschak et al., 2016). This research capitalizes on semantic matching/congruency, that is, the associations that exist between olfaction and audition as a function of common identities or meanings (denotative meaning). For instance, in one study Seo and Hummel (2011) reported that people's enjoyment of olfactory stimuli was heightened when they were paired with semantically congruent sounds. In one case, the aroma of potato chips was combined with the sound of crunching crisps. In contrast, when incongruent sounds were presented, such as the sound of someone drinking coffee in the given scenario, the perceived pleasantness of the smell decreased (see also Seo et al., 2011, 2014; Zhou & Yamanaka, 2018).

Crossmodal Effects of Scent on Sound

It is important to bear in mind that crossmodal effects likely also operate in the opposite direction (e.g., Guedes et al., 2023), namely from scent to people's evaluation of sound and music. In many such cases, the presentation of scent either induces a particular mood, and hence changes people's interpretation and/or assessment of music, or the scent is somehow congruent with the sound (Pizzoli et al., 2022). Several cases in which scent has been deliberately introduced to actual musical performance and those presented in literary works, have been reviewed by Spence (2021a).²¹ Meanwhile, Baccarani and Brochard (2023) recently examined whether relaxing and stimulating ambient odors (strawberry and lemon, respectively) could bias people's tempo preferences. The participants in their study listened to pairs of excerpts played at slightly different tempi and had to indicate which one they preferred. The results revealed that preferences in both odor conditions differed significantly from those in the control condition. In the absence of odor, participants preferred the slower of the fast-tempo pairs of excerpts and the faster of the slow-tempo pairs, thus indicating a general preference for moderate tempo. In the odor condition, however, the participants showed no preference for the slower of the fast-tempo pairs of excerpts in the presence of a lemon odor, and no preference for the faster of the slow-tempo pairs in the presence of a strawberry odor. Such results thus hint at the sometimes-complex nature of the crossmodal relationship between scent and sound.

Sound and Scent in the Realm of Digital Experiences

The early stages of digitizing multisensory experiences, driven by the integration of a range of digital technologies into user and consumer interactions, gave rise to frustration and a sense of uncertainty. This likely derived from the lack of sensory cues that we traditionally depend on to navigate various offerings and offline experiences, now transferred to the online realm (Petit et al., 2019). Nevertheless, technological advances, including in virtual reality (VR), augmented reality (AR), and various other sensory-enabling technologies (Spence et al., 2017), have emerged as transformative elements capable of enhancing people's multisensory experiences involving digital technologies. As such, another area that has emerged as an intriguing field of study concerns the integration of sound and smell within such experiences mediated by digital technology, as described by Obrist et al. (2017) and Kerruish (2019) on new sensory-enabling technologies, that is, technologies that allow existing and new types of sensory stimulation and interactions in digital environments (see also Petit et al., 2019).

The integration of the olfactory and auditory senses has found interesting applications in, for example, the context of VR. For instance, Season Traveller was a VR experience developed by Ranasinghe et al. (2018) that incorporated visual, auditory, wind, thermal, and olfactory stimuli through the Samsung Gear VR Head-Mounted Display, enriching participants’ sense of presence. Here, the researchers capitalized on semantic congruence (the identity and meaning of the experience being the specific season in which they wanted the user to feel themselves immersed), thus aligning different sensory cues, including sound and smells, as a function of the four seasons. The merging of scent and sound is further illustrated in this domain by the research of Serrano et al. (2016), where VR was used to induce relaxation through the stimulation of touch and smell, but also sound. Elsewhere, meanwhile, Dozio et al. (2021) explored the use of smell and sound in visuospatial attention in VR, showing that the combination of olfactory and auditory stimuli had a greater impact on directing participants’ visuospatial attention toward the right side of the exploration space as depicted in VR. In contrast, stimuli originating from the left side led to increased performance in the left hemispace. Flavián et al. (2021) studied the impact of scent on VR experiences (including sound), with their results once again emphasizing the importance of considering aroma-content congruence. Similar recent studies were conducted to improve learning experiences using congruent scent as part VR scenes (Andonova et al., 2023), as well as in the practice of mindfulness, with scent added to immersive multisensory therapeutical atmospheres (Finck et al., 2023).

At present, many of the aforementioned experiences would appear to be focused, more than on smell and audition specifically, on the integration of multiple senses into a compelling unitary multisensory experience (or gestalt) to coincide with the corresponding storytelling. These studies, however, can also be seen as highlighting the growing importance of fusing different senses such as sound and smell to create more immersive and captivating digital experiences (see also Brengman et al., 2022).

Conclusions

There has been an explosive growth of interest in perfumed music in recent years fueled, in part, by the literature that has emerged on the crossmodal correspondences (Deroy et al., 2013; Spence, 2011), no matter whether one is thinking about how to market scent online (Edelson, 2021; IFF, 2023), or about how to create more engaging sensory touchpoints for a brand with the consumer (Neff, 2000). It has even been suggested that scent selection can be achieved on the basis of the consumer's musical preference, perhaps hinting at the sharing of aesthetic preferences across the senses (e.g., Brown et al., 2011; Chen et al., 2022; Herz, 1998; Viengkham & Spehar, 2022). As such, there is growing agreement that one can talk meaningfully about, as well as empirically assess, the degree of congruency, or correspondence between scents and sounds (Errajaa et al., 2023; Mahdavi et al., 2020; Spangenberg et al., 2005; Zhou & Yamanaka, 2018), without having to discuss the phenomenon of synaesthesia (Anon, 2012). The evidence supporting the use of techniques such as the semantic differential technique and the emerging literature on crossmodal correspondences has been outlined. At the same time, however, the research outlined here indicates how the crossmodal congruency between sound and scent can operate at several different levels, from sematic to connotative. The many marketing-related activations in this area that have appeared over the last few years have also been reviewed.

Despite the recent hype regarding the matching of scent and sound, it remains to be seen whether this innovative new multisensory approach to the marketing and experience of scented products, such as perfume, will last in the long-term, or whether instead it is just another one of those sensory marketing fads that will pass once the headlines and media coverage have receded. However, looking to the future, it would seem possible that crossmodal correspondences between fragrance and sound might one day also be exploited in the context of sensory substitution research (Pinardi et al., 2023). For example, assuming that correspondences between olfactory fragrance notes and acoustic features of music are well-established, one could imagine conveying auditory information using odors, or vice versa, to allow people with impaired hearing/olfaction to experience fragrances/music more fully (i.e., in a manner that more fully engages the senses). At the same time, advances in immersive technology, such as the development of Smell-o-Vision for VR, hint at a potentially promising multisensory future in which the integration of sensory elements enhances our digital interactions (see The Verge, 2023; https://www.theverge.com/2023/5/9/23715453/wearable-smell-virtual-reality-immersive; cf. Spence, 2021d).

Footnotes

Author contribution(s)

Charles Spence: Conceptualization; Writing – original draft; Writing – review & editing.

Nicola Di Stefano: Investigation; Writing – review & editing.

Felipe Reinoso-Carvalho: Investigation; Writing – review & editing.

Carlos Velasco: Investigation; Writing – review & editing.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declare no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Charles Spence

Notes

How to cite this article

Spence, C., Di Stefano, N., Reinoso-Carvalho, F., & Velasco, C. (2024). Marketing sonified fragrance: Designing soundscapes for scent. i-Perception, 15(4), 1–23.

References

Alexander

(2021). From a Lamborghini’s roar to a Moët’s pop: How sound became one of luxury’s most powerful tools. Robb Report, October 15^th. https://robbreport.com/lifestyle/news/sound-of-luxury-1234636968/

Andonova

Reinoso-Carvalho

Jimenez Ramirez

M. A.

Carrasquilla

(2023). Does multisensory stimulation with virtual reality (VR) and smell improve learning? An educational experience in recall and creativity. Frontiers in Psychology, 14, 1176697. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1176697

Anon (2012). Hear “Perfume set to music: The ‘Sound’ of Scents” by Harry Revel (1948). Yesterday’s Perfumes (Blogpost), April 16^th. https://www.yesterdaysperfume.com/ yesterdays_perfume/2012/04/hear-perfume-set-to-music-the-sound- of-scents-by-harry-revel.html.

Auracher

Menninghaus

Scharinger

(2020). Sound predicts meaning: Crossmodal associations between formant frequency and emotional tone in stanzas. Cognitive Science, 44(10), e12906. https://doi.org/10.1111/cogs.12906

Baccarani

Brochard

(2023). Relaxing and stimulating ambient odors influence preferences for musical tempo. Musicae Scientiae, 28(2), 273–286.

Barwich

A.-S.

(2019). A critique of olfactory objects. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 1337. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01337

Belkin

Martin

Kemp

S. E.

Gilbert

A. N.

(1997). Auditory pitch as a perceptual analogue to odor quality. Psychological Science, 8(4), 340–342. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.1997.tb00450.x

Bradford

K. D.

Desrochers

D. M.

(2009). The use of scents to influence consumers: The sense of using scents to make cents. Journal of Business Ethics, 90, 141–153. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-010-0377-5

Brady

J. A.

(1978). A matter of dollars and scents. Saturday Review, 5(25), 54–56.

10.

Brengman

Willems

De Gauquier

(2022). Customer engagement in multi-sensory virtual reality advertising: The effect of sound and scent congruence. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 747456. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.747456

11.

Bronner

Bruhn

Hirt

Piper

(2012). What is the sound of citrus? Research on the correspondences between the perception of sound and flavour. In Proceedings of the 12th International Conference of Music Perception and Cognition and the 8th Triennial Conference of the European Society for the Cognitive Sciences of Music, 23-28 July, 2012 Thessaloniki, Greece. http://icmpc-escom2012.web.auth.gr/sites/default/files/papers/142_Proc.pdf

12.

Brown

Gao

Tisdelle

Eickhoff

S. B.

Liotti

(2011). Naturalizing aesthetics: Brain areas for aesthetic appraisal across sensory modalities. NeuroImage, 58(1), 250–258. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.06.012

13.

Burzynska

(2018). Assessing oenosthesia: Blending wine and sound. International Journal of Food Design, 3(2), 83–101. https://doi.org/10.1386/ijfd.3.2.83_1

14.

Cantu

M. A. F.

Rodriguez

Reinoso-Carvalho

Reyes

L. H.

Pereira

V. J. D. A. R.

Veiga

C. A.

dos Santos

L. C. Z.

Oliveira

C. F. S.

Firmino

A. R. I.

Sasson

C. S.

(2022). The sounds of freshness: Soundtracks that crossmodally correspond with sensations associated to olfactory freshness. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/368748164_The_Sounds_of_Freshness_Soundtracks_that_crossmodally_correspond_with_sensations_associated_to_olfactory_freshness

15.

Carnevale

Hadi

Luna

Pogacar

(2023). Follow your nose when it sounds right: How brand names influence consumer responses to product scents. Journal of Business Research, 157, 113578. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2022.113578

16.

Chen

Y.-C.

Chang

Rosenberg

M. D.

Feng

Scholl

B. J.

Trainor

L. J.

(2022). ‘Taste typicality’’ is a foundational and multi-modal dimension of ordinary aesthetic experience. Current Biology, 32, 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2022.02.039

17.

Crisinel

A.-S.

Jacquier

Deroy

Spence

(2013). Composing with cross-modal correspondences: Music and smells in concert. Chemosensory Perception, 6, 45–52. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12078-012-9138-4

18.

Crisinel

A.-S.

Spence

(2012). A fruity note: Crossmodal associations between odors and musical notes. Chemical Senses, 37, 151–158. https://doi.org/10.1093/chemse/bjr085

19.

Dalton

Maute

Oshida

Hikichi

Izumi

(2008). The use of semantic differential scaling to define the multi-dimensional representation of odors. Journal of Sensory Studies, 23(4), 485–497. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-459X.2008.00167.x

20.

De Luca

Botelho

(2021). The unconscious perception of smells as a driver of consumer responses: A framework integrating the emotion-cognition approach to scent marketing. AMS Review, 11(1-2), 145–161. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13162-019-00154-8

21.

Demattè

M. L.

Sanabria

Spence

(2007). Olfactory–tactile compatibility effects demonstrated using a variation of the implicit association test. Acta Psychologica, 124(3), 332–343. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.actpsy.2006.04.001

22.

Deroy

Crisinel

A.-S.

Spence

(2013). Crossmodal correspondences between odors and contingent features: Odors, musical notes, and geometrical shapes. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 20, 878–896. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-013-0397-0

23.

Deroy

Spence

(2013c). Why we are not all synesthetes (not even weakly so). Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 20, 643–664. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-013-0387-2

24.

Di Stefano

(2023). Musical emotions and timbre: From expressiveness to atmospheres. Philosophia, 51(5), 2625–2637. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11406-023-00700-6

25.

Di Stefano

Ansani

Schiavio

Spence

(2024). Prokofiev was (almost) right: A cross-cultural exploration of audiovisual associations in Peter and the Wolf. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-023-02435-7

26.

Di Stefano

Murari

Spence

(2022). Crossmodal correspondences in art and science: Odours, poetry, and music. In Di Stefano

Russo

M. T.

(Eds.), Olfaction: An interdisciplinary perspective from philosophy to life sciences, human perspectives in health sciences and technology 4 (pp. 155–189). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-75205-7_10.

27.

Di Stefano

Spence

(2023). Perceptual similarity: Insights from the crossmodal correspondences. Reviews in Philosophy & Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13164-023-00692-y

28.

Dozio

Maggioni

Pittera

Gallace

Obrist

(2021). May I smell your attention: Exploration of smell and sound for visuospatial attention in virtual reality. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 671470. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.749419

29.

Edelson

(2021). Viktor & Rolf’s new Spicebomb fragrance has its very own sound. Forbes, October 4^th. https://www.forbes.com/sites/sharonedelson/2021/10/04/viktor–rolfs-new-spicebombfragrance-has-its-very-own-sound/?sh=56bd47b7502c

30.

Eglīte

(2021). The role of senses, emotions and the principles of the experience economy in the creative industries. Culture Crossroads, 19(1), 230–242. https://doi.org/10.55877/cc.vol19.25

31.

Errajaa

Legohérel

Daucé

Bilgihan

(2023). Scent marketing: Linking the scent congruence with brand image. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 33(2), 402–427. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJCHM-06-2020-0637

32.

Ferrari

(2015). Writing narrative style literature reviews. Medical Writing, 24(4), 230–235. https://doi.org/10.1179/2047480615Z.000000000329

33.

Finck

Avila

Jiménez-Leal

Botero

J. P.

Shambo

Hernandez

Reinoso-Carvalho

Andonova

(2023). A multisensory mindfulness experience: Exploring the promotion of sensory awareness as a mindfulness practice. Frontiers in Psychology, 14, 1230832. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1230832

34.

Flavián

Ibáñez-Sánchez

Orús

(2021). The influence of scent on virtual reality experiences: The role of aroma-content congruence. Journal of Business Research, 123, 289–301. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2020.09.036

35.

Furley

Goldschmied

(2021). Systematic vs. narrative reviews in sport and exercise psychology: Is either approach superior to the other? Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 685082. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.685082

36.

Gallace

Ngo

M. K.

Sulaitis

Spence

(2012). Multisensory presence in virtual reality: Possibilities & limitations. In Ghinea

Andres

Gulliver

(Eds.), Multiple sensorial media advances and applications: New developments in MulSeMedia (pp. 1–38). IGI Global.

37.

Gawronski

Hahn

(2018). Implicit measures: Procedures, use, and interpretation. In Blanton

LaCroix

J. M.

Webster

G. D.

(Eds.), Measurement in social psychology (pp. 29–55). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429452925-2.

38.

Gleason-Allured

(2022). L’Oréal x Emotiv launch neurotech scent selection platform. Perfumer & Flavorist, March 23^rd. https://www.perfumerflavorist.com/news/news/22131749/loral-x-emotiv-launch-neurotech-scent-selection-platform

39.

Greenwald

A. G.

McGhee

D. E.

Schwartz

J. L. K.

(1998). Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The implicit association test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(6), 1464–1480. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.74.6.1464

40.

Grinfeder

Lorenzi

Haupert

Sueur

(2022). What do we mean by “soundscape”? A functional description. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution, 10, 894232. https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2022.894232

41.

Guedes

Prada

Lamy

Garrido

M. V.

(2023). Bidirectionality in multisensory perception: Examining the mutual influences between audition and taste. Food Quality and Preference, 110, 104964. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2023.104964

42.

Hacohen

Wagner

(1997). The communicative force of Wagner's Leitmotifs: Complementary relationships between their connotations and denotations. Music Perception, 14(4), 445–475. https://doi.org/10.2307/40285733

43.

Hanson-Vaux

Crisinel

A.-S.

Spence

(2013). Smelling shapes: Crossmodal correspondences between odors and shapes. Chemical Senses, 38, 161–166. https://doi.org/10.1093/chemse/bjs087

44.

Haverkamp

(2014). Synesthetic design: Handbook for a multisensory approach. Basel: Birkhäuser.

45.

Herz

R. S.

(1998). An examination of objective and subjective measures of experience associated to odors, music, and paintings. Empirical Studies of the Arts, 16(2), 137–152. https://doi.org/10.2190/C43T-CJR2-9LPD-R0PB

46.

Holbrook

Huber

(1979). Separating perceptual dimensions from affective overtones: An application to consumer aesthetics. Journal of Consumer Research, 5(4), 272–283. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2488680 https://doi.org/10.1086/208739

47.

IFF (2023). IFF launches sound logo to illustrate multi-sensory dimensions of scent: Named “World of Scents,” the sound represents how scent plays a key role to awaken the extraordinary senses. Press Release. Paris, France, October 19^th. https://www.iff.com/media/news/iff-launches-sound-logo-illustrate-multi-sensory-dimensions-scent

48.

Jagota

(2021). Get to know Arooj Aftab, the defiant singer who’s reimagining traditional South Asian music for today. Pitch-Fork, May 6^th. https://pitchfork.com/features/rising/arooj-aftab-vulture-prince-interview/

49.

Kawachi

Kawabata

Kitamura

M. S.

Shibata

Imaizumi

Gyoba

(2011). Topographic distribution of brain activities corresponding to psychological structures underlying affective meanings: An fMRI study. Japanese Psychological Research, 53(4), 361–371. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-5884.2011.00485.x

50.

Kerruish

(2019). Arranging sensations: Smell and taste in augmented and virtual reality. The Senses and Society, 14(1), 31–45. https://doi.org/10.1080/17458927.2018.1556952

51.

Klaverstijn

(2021). A pinch of ‘sonic seasoning’ for your Black Bottle. https://wordsofwhisky.com/black-bottle-alchemy-series-sonic-seasoning/

52.

Knoeferle

Velasco

Spence

(2016). Multisensory brand search: How the meaning of sounds guides consumers’ visual attention. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 22(2), 196–210. https://doi.org/10.1037/xap0000084

53.

Knoeferle

Spence

(2021). Sound in the context of (multi-)sensory marketing. In Deaville

J. A.

Tan

Rodman

R. W.

(Eds.), Oxford Handbook of music and advertising (pp. 833–856). Oxford University Press.

54.

L’Oréal Group. (2021, October 15). L’Oréal Group: Experience the World’s First Digital Perfume Sample with Viktor&Rolf. https://www.loreal.com/en/articles/brands/viktorrolf-infrared-sound/

55.

L’Orchestre Parfum. (2021). Our Fragrances. https://lorchestreparfum.com/gb/3-our-fragrances

56.

Mahdavi

Barbosa

Oliveira

Chkoniya

(2020). Sounds of scents: Olfactory-auditory correspondences in the online purchase experience of perfume. Revista Brasileira de Gestao de Negocios, 22(4), 836–853. https://doi.org/10.7819/rbgn.v22i4.4083

57.

Mahieu

Visalli

Schlich

Thomas

(2019). Eating chocolate, smelling perfume or watching video advertisement: Does it make any difference on emotional states measured at home using facial expressions? Food Quality and Preference, 77, 102–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2019.05.011

58.

Mensing

(2023). Beautiful scent. Springer.

59.

Mesz

Gorla

Zarzo

(2023). The music of perfume: Crossmodal correspondences between musical features and olfactory perception. Music Perception, 41(2), 110–131. https://doi.org/10.1525/mp.2023.41.2.110

60.

Millar

(2019). Smelling objects. Synthese, 196, 4279–4303. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11229-017-1657-8

61.

Miller

(2021). The semantic differential in the study of musical perception: A theoretical overview. Visions of Research in Music Education, 16, 11. https://opencommons.uconn.edu/vrme/vol16/iss1/11

62.

Minsky

Fahey

Fabrigas

(2018). Inside the invisible but influential world of scent branding. Harvard Business Review, April 11^th. https://hbr.org/2018/04/inside-the-invisible-but-influential-world-of-scent-branding

63.

Motoki

Marks

L. E.

Velasco

(2023). Reflections on crossmodal correspondences: Current understanding and standing issues. Multisensory Research, 37(1), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1163/22134808-bja10114

64.

Neff

(2000). Product scents hide absence of true innovation. Advertising Age, February 21^st, 22. http://adage.com/article/news/product-scents-hide-absence-true-innovation/59353/

65.

Nudds

(2010). What are auditory objects? Review of Philosophy and Psychology, 1(1), 105–122. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13164-009-0003-6

66.

Obrist

Gatti

Maggioni

C. T.

Velasco

(2017). Multisensory experiences in HCI. IEEE MultiMedia, 24(2), 9–13. https://doi.org/10.1109/MMUL.2017.33

67.

Ohtake

Tanaka

Yamamoto

(2023). How many categories are there in crossmodal correspondences? A study based on exploratory factor analysis. PLoS ONE, 18(11), e0294141. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0294141

68.

Osgood

C. E.

(1959). Semantic space revisited: A reply to Uriel Weinreich's review of the measurement of meaning. Word, 15(1), 192–200. https://doi.org/10.1080/00437956.1959.11659693

69.

Osgood

C. E.

Suci

G. J.

Tannenbaum

P. H.

(1957). The measurement of meaning. University of Illinois Press.

70.

Oyama

Yamada

Iwasawa

(1998). Synesthetic tendencies as the basis of sensory symbolism: A review of a series of experiments by means of semantic differential. Psychologia, 41(3), 203–215.

71.

Papesch

(2022). Seeing, hearing, tasting, touching and smelling. Metropol, January 31^st. https://metropol.co.nz/seeing-hearing-tasting-touching-and-smelling/

72.

Parise

C. V.

Knorre

Ernst

M. O.

(2014). Natural auditory scene statistics shapes human spatial hearing. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA, 111, 6104–6108. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1322705111

73.

Petit

Velasco

Spence

(2019). Digital sensory marketing: Integrating new technologies into multisensory online experience. Journal of Interactive Marketing, 45, 42–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intmar.2018.07.004

74.

Piesse

G. W. S.

(1867). The Art of Perfumery and the Methods of Obtaining the Odors of Plants: With Instructions for the Manufacture of Perfumes for the Handkerchief, Scented Powders, Odorous Vinegars, Dentifrices, Pomatums, Cosmetics, Perfumed Soap, Etc., to which is Added an Appendix on Preparing Artificial Fruit-essences, Etc. Lindsay & Blakiston.

75.

Pinardi

Di Stefano

Di Pino

Spence

(2023). Exploring crossmodal correspondences for future research in human movement augmentation. Frontiers in Psychology, 14, 1190103. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1190103

76.

Pine

B. J.

Gilmore

J. H.

(1998). The experience economy. Harvard Business Review, 76(6), 18–23. https://hbr.org/1998/07/welcome-to-the-experience-economy

77.

Pizzoli

S. F. M.

Monzani

Mazzocco

Maggioni

Pravettoni

(2022). The power of odor persuasion: The incorporation of olfactory cues in virtual environments for personalized relaxation. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 17(3), 652–661. https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211014196

78.

Ranasinghe

Jain

Thi Ngoc Tram

Koh

K. C. R.

Tolley

Karwita

, …, & Do

E. Y. L.

(2018, April). Season traveller: Multisensory narration for enhancing the virtual reality experience. In Proceedings of the 2018 CHI conference on human factors in computing systems (pp. 1–13).

79.

Reinoso-Carvalho

Gunn

Molina

Narumi

Spence

Suzuki

ter Horst

Wagemans

(2020b). A sprinkle of emotions vs a pinch of crossmodality: Towards globally meaningful sonic seasoning strategies for tasting experiences. Journal of Business Research, 117, 389–399. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2020.04.055

80.

Reinoso-Carvalho

Gunn

L. H.

ter Horst

Spence

(2020a). Blending emotions and crossmodality in sonic seasoning: Towards greater applicability in multisensory food experience design. Foods (Basel, Switzerland), 9, 1876. https://www.mdpi.com/2304-8158/9/12/1876/pdf

81.

Reinoso Carvalho

Van Ee

Rychtarikova

Touhafi

Steenhaut

Persoone

Spence

(2015). Using sound-taste correspondences to enhance the subjective value of tasting experiences. Frontiers in Psychology: Eating Behaviour, 6, 1309. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01309

82.

Reinoso Carvalho

Wang

Q (J).

Van Ee

Persoone

Spence

(2017). Smooth operator: Music modulates the perceived creaminess, sweetness, and bitterness of chocolate. Appetite, 108, 383–390. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2016.10.026

83.

Robin (2015). Ephemera by Unsound Noise, Drone & Bass ∼ new fragrances. Now Smell This, March 22^nd. https://nstperfume.com/2015/03/22/ephemera-by-unsound-noise-drone-bass-new-fragrances/

84.

Rodríguez

Reinoso-Carvalho

Reyes

L. H.

(2023a). Exploring crossmodal associations between sound and the chemical senses: A systematic review including interactive visualizations. Multisensory Research, 36(8), 725–825. https://doi.org/10.1163/22134808-bja10107

85.

Rodriguez

Arboleda

Reinoso-Carvalho

(submitted). Disrupting the experience of skincare topical products: Multisensory strategies for promoting consumer loyalty and treatment adherence. Heliyon.

86.

Rodriguez

Cantu

M. A. F.

Reyes

L. H.

Pereira

V. J. A. R.

Santos

L. C. Z.

Reinoso-Carvalho

(2024). Sound of freshness: Crafting multisensory experience in perfumery. Food Quality and Preference, 105228. https://10.1016/j.foodqual.2024.105228

87.

Rodriguez

Reinoso-Carvalho

Reyes

L. H.

(2023b). Sensory Science in Topical Cosmetics: Enhancing the Consumer Experience and Emotional Connection in the Skincare. 15th Pangborn Sensory Science Symposium - Meeting new challenges in a changing world. Nantes, France. Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4550045

88.

ROOM 1015. (n.d.). Music. https://room1015.com/en/content/6-Music

89.

Rozin

(1982). Taste-smell confusions” and the duality of the olfactory sense. Perception & Psychophysics, 31(4), 397–401. https://doi.org/10.3758/bf03202667

90.

Saitis

Weinzierl

von Kriegstein

Ystad

Cuskley

(2020). Timbre semantics through the lens of crossmodal correspondences: A new way of asking old questions. Acoustical Science & Technology, 41(1), 365–368. https://doi.org/10.1250/ast.41.365

91.

Schafer

R. M.

(1977). Our sonic environment and the tuning of the world: The soundscape. Destiny Books.

92.

Scherer

K. R.

Oshinsky

J. S.

(1977). Cue utilization in emotion attribution from auditory stimuli. Motivation & Emotion, 1(4), 331–346. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00992539

93.

Schifferstein

H. N. J.

Howell

B. F.

(2015). Using color-odor correspondences for fragrance packaging design. Food Quality & Preference, 46, 17–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2015.06.012

94.

Schifferstein

H. N. J.

Tanudjaja

(2004). Visualizing fragrances through colors: The mediating role of emotions. Perception, 33(10), 1249–1266. https://doi.org/10.1068/p5132

95.

Seo

H.-S.

Gudziol

Hähner

Hummel

(2011). Background sound modulates the performance of odor discrimination task. Experimental Brain Research, 212(2), 305–314. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-011-2729-5

96.

Seo

H.-S.

Hummel

(2011). Auditory–olfactory integration: Congruent or pleasant sounds amplify odor pleasantness. Chemical Senses, 36(3), 301–309. https://doi.org/10.1093/chemse/bjq129

97.

Seo

H.-S.

Lohse

Luckett

C. R.

Hummel

(2014). Congruent sound can modulate odor pleasantness. Chemical Senses, 39(3), 215–228. https://doi.org/10.1093/chemse/bjt070

98.

Serrano

Baños

R. M.

Botella

(2016). Virtual reality and stimulation of touch and smell for inducing relaxation: A randomized controlled trial. Computers in Human Behavior, 55, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.08.007

99.

Skrzypulec

(2019). Olfactory objecthood. Philosophia, 47(3), 881–900. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11406-018-0017-3

100.

Snider

J. G.

Osgood

C. E.

(1969). Semantic differential technique: A sourcebook. Aldine Publishing.

101.

Southworth

(1969). The sonic environment of cities. Environment and Behavior, 1(1), 49–70. https://doi.org/10.1177/001391656900100104

102.

Spangenberg

E. R.

Grohmann

Sprott

D. E.

(2005). It's beginning to smell (and sound) a lot like christmas: The interactive effects of ambient scent and music in a retail setting. Journal of Business Research, 58(11), 1583–1589. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2004.09.005

103.

Spence

(2002). The ICI report on the secret of the senses. The Communication Group.

104.

Spence

(2011). Crossmodal correspondences: A tutorial review. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 73(4), 971–995. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13414-010-0073-7

105.

Spence

(2012). Synaesthetic marketing: Cross sensory selling that exploits unusual neural cues is finally coming of age. The Wired World in 2013, November, 104–107.

106.

Spence

(2015a). Book review: Synaesthetic design. Multisensory Research, 28(3-4), 245–248. https://doi.org/10.1163/22134808-00002476

107.

Spence

(2015b). Just how much of what we taste derives from the sense of smell? Flavour, 4, 30. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13411-015-0040-2

108.

Spence

(2017). Sonic seasoning. In Minsky

Fahey

(Eds.), Audio branding: Using sound to build your brand (pp. 52–58). Kogan Page.

109.

Spence

(2020a). Designing scented colours: On the art & science of olfactory-colour crossmodal correspondences. The Baltic International Yearbook of Cognition, Logic and Communication, 14(1), 2. https://doi.org/10.4148/1944-3676.1125

110.

Spence

(2020b). Olfactory-colour crossmodal correspondences in art, science, & design. Cognitive Research: Principles & Implications (CRPI), 5, 52. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41235-020-00246-1

111.

Spence

(2020c). Using ambient scent to enhance well-being in the multisensory built environment. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 598859. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.598859

112.

Spence

(2020d). Assessing the role of emotional mediation in explaining crossmodal correspondences involving musical stimuli. Multisensory Research, 33(1), 1–29. https://doi.org/10.1163/22134808-20191469

113.

Spence

(2021a). Musical scents: On the surprising absence of scented musical/auditory events entertainments, and experiences. i-Perception, 12, 1–31. https://doi.org/10.1177/20416695211038747

114.

Spence

(2021b). The scent of attraction & the smell of success: Crossmodal influences on person perception. Cognitive Research: Principles & Implications, 6(1):46. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41235-021-00311-3. https://rdcu.be/cngR9

115.

Spence

(2021c). Sensehacking: How to use the power of your senses for happier, heathier living. Viking Penguin.

116.

Spence

(2021d). Scenting entertainment: Virtual reality storytelling, theme park rides, gambling, & video-gaming. i-Perception, 12(2), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1177/20416695211034538

117.

Spence

(2022a). Neuroscience-inspired multisensory design in the cosmetics sector. IFSCC Magazine, 25(2), 1–10.

118.

Spence

(2022b). Exploring group differences in the crossmodal correspondences. Multisensory Research, 35(6), 495–536. https://doi.org/10.1163/22134808-bja10079

119.

Spence

Di Stefano

(2022). Crossmodal harmony: Looking for the meaning of harmony beyond hearing. i-Perception, 13(1), 1–40. https://doi.org/10.1177/20416695211073817

120.

Spence

Di Stefano

(2023). Sensory translation between audition and vision. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 31, 599–626. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-023-02343-w

121.

Spence

Keller

(2024). Sonic branding: A narrative review at the intersection of art and science. Psychology & Marketing. https://doi.org/10.1002/mar.21995

122.

Spence

Ranasinghe

Velasco

Obrist

(2017). Digitizing the chemical senses: Possibilities & pitfalls. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 107, 62–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhcs.2017.06.003

123.

Spence

Reinoso-Carvalho

Velasco

Wang

Q. J.

(2019). Extrinsic auditory contributions to food perception & consumer behaviour: An interdisciplinary review. Multisensory Research, 32(4-5), 275–318. https://doi.org/10.1163/22134808-20191403

124.

Spence

Wang

Q. J.

(2018). On the meaning(s) of complexity in the chemical senses. Chemical Senses, 43(7), 451–461. https://doi.org/10.1093/chemse/bjy047

125.

Spence

Wang

Q. J.

Reinoso-Carvalho

Keller

(2021). Commercializing sonic seasoning in multisensory offline experiential events and online tasting experiences. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 740354. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.740354

126.

Stevens

S. S.

(1957). On the psychophysical law. Psychological Review, 64(3), 153–181. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0046162

127.

Stevens

S. S.

(1971). Issues in psychophysical measurement. Psychological Review, 78(5), 426–450. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0031324

128.

Suparno

(2020). Online purchase intention of halal cosmetics: S-O-R framework application. Journal of Islamic Marketing, 12(9), 1665–1681. https://doi.org/10.1108/jima-09-2019-0192/

129.

Taylor

C. R.

(2023a). The need to be heard: Why sonic branding is growing in importance. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/charlesrtaylor/2023/07/31/the-need-to-be-heard-why-sonic-branding-is-growing-in-importance/?sh=7d3a5d54673a

130.

Taylor

C. R.

(2023b). Why companies should associate their brands with sounds. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/charlesrtaylor/2023/09/28/why-companies-should-associate-their-brands-with-sounds/?sh=6a371684230a

131.

Velasco

Balboa

Marmolejo-Ramos

Spence

(2014). Crossmodal effect of music and odor pleasantness on olfactory quality perception. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 1352. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01352

132.

Velasco

Corradi

Motoki

(2023a). Harmony of senses: Exploring the impact of sound aesthetic features’ on taste imagery. Food Quality and Preference, 111, 104992. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2023.104992

133.

Velasco

Escobar

F. B.

Spence

Olier

J. S.

(2023b). The taste of colours. Food Quality and Preference, 112, 105009. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2023.105009

134.

Velasco

Obrist

(2020). Multisensory experiences: Where the senses meet technology. Oxford University Press.

135.

Velasco

Spence

2019). Multisensory packaging: Designing new product experiences. Palgrave MacMillan.

136.

Velasco

Spence

(2022). Capitalizing on the crossmodal correspondences between audition and olfaction in the design of multisensory experiences. In Pomirleanu

Mariadoss

B.-J.

Schibrowsky

(Eds.), Experiential marketing in an era of hyper-connectivity (pp. 85–113). Cambridge Scholars Publishing.

137.

Velasco

Obrist

(2018). Towards multisensory storytelling with taste and flavor. In Proceedings of the 3rd international workshop on multisensory approaches to human-food interaction (MHFI'18) (Vol. Article 2, pp. 7 pages). ACM.

138.

Vidal-Mestre

Freire-Sánchez

Calderón-Garrido

Faure-Carvallo

Gustems-Carnicer

(2022). Audio identity in branding and brand communication strategy: A systematic review of the literature on audio branding. Profesional de la Información, 31(5), e310504. https://doi.org/10.3145/epi.2022.sep.04

139.

Viengkham

Spehar

(2022). Beyond visual aesthetics: The role of fractal-scaling characteristics across the senses. Journal of Perceptual Imaging, 5, 000406–1_000406-14. https://doi.org/10.2352/J.Percept.Imaging.2022.5.000406

140.

Walliczek-Dworschak

Pellegrino

Lee

Hummel

Hähner

Hummel

(2016). Olfactory performance can be influenced by the presentation order, background noise, and positive concurrent feedback. Chemical Senses, 41(8), 697–701. https://doi.org/10.1093/chemse/bjw079

141.

Wallmark

(2019). Semantic crosstalk in timbre perception. Music & Science, 2, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1177/2059204319846617

142.

Ward

(2013). Synesthesia. Annual Review of Psychology, 64, 49–75. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143840

143.

Watt

R. J.

Ash

R. L.

(1998). A psychological investigation of meaning in music. Musicae Scientiae, 2(1), 33–53. https://doi.org/10.1177/102986499800200103

144.

Watt

Quinn

(2007). Some robust higher-level percepts for music. Perception, 36(12), 1834–1848. https://doi.org/10.1068/p5663

145.

Windsor

W. L.

(2004). An ecological approach to semiotics. Journal of the Theory of Social Behavior, 34(2), 179–198. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0021-8308.2004.00242.x

146.

Woods

A. T.

Spence

Butcher

Deroy

(2013). Fast lemons and sour boulders: Testing crossmodal correspondences using an internet-based testing methodology. i-Perception, 4(6), 365–379. https://doi.org/10.1068/i058

147.

Zacharakis

Michail

Pastiadis

(2023). Scent of a timbre: Cross-modal correspondences between synthetic timbres and essential oil aromas. Proceedings of Timbre 2023, 3rd International Conference on Timbre. Thessaloniki, Greece.

148.

Zhou

Yamanaka

(2018). How does congruence of scent and music affect people’s emotions. International Journal of Affective Engineering, 17(2), 127–136. https://doi.org/10.5057/ijae.IJAE-D-17-00032