Taking stock and moving forward: A textual statistics approach to synthesizing four decades of job insecurity research

Abstract

We collected the abstracts of manuscripts examining job insecurity published between 1984 and 2019 and carried out a textual analysis to investigate the defining clusters, their development over time, and whether there was evidence of siloed knowledge. Results suggested that job insecurity research seems to be fragmented into disciplinary foci (organizational psychology, public health, economics, and sociology). Further analyses on the organizational psychology corpus, revealed 25 topics with distinct temporal trajectories: some were increasing (analytical advances and differentiation between cognitive and affective job insecurity) while other were decreasing (scale development). The remaining abstracts revealed 15 topics with more stable trajectories. Based on these results, we identified five areas for future organizational research on job insecurity: the changing labor market, the need to better understand the experiences of marginalized workers and non-work outcomes of job insecurity, the added-value of qualitative research, and the need to critically evaluate our assumptions as researchers.

Plain Language Summary

Since the paper by Greenhalgh and Rosenblatt, research on job insecurity has burgeoned. Taking an interdisciplinary perspective, we collected the abstracts of all peer-reviewed manuscripts examining job insecurity published between 1984 and 2019 and carried out a textual analysis using the Latent Dirichlet Allocation and the Reinert method to investigate (a) the defining clusters of job insecurity research, (b) the development of such clusters over time, and (c) whether there was any evidence of siloed knowledge. Results suggested that indeed job insecurity research seems to be fragmented into four main disciplinary foci (organizational psychology, public health, economics, and sociology) with relatively little cross-fertilization. We conducted further analyses of the abstracts stemming from organizational research on job insecurity, revealing 25 topics with distinct temporal trajectories (e.g., “hot” topics including the increasing use of advanced analytic techniques and differentiation between cognitive and affective job insecurity) and “cold” topics including the development of job insecurity measures). The remaining abstracts revealed 15 topics with more stable research interests over time (e.g., a continued reliance on appraisal theories). Based on these results, we identified five areas for future organizational research on job insecurity based on: the changing labor market, the need to better understand the experiences of marginalized workers and non-work outcomes of job insecurity, the added-value of qualitative research, and finally the need to critically evaluate our assumptions as researchers.

Keywords

job insecurity employment uncertainty textual statistics quantitative review

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Aguinis

Bradley

K. J.

Brodersen

(2014). Industrial–organizational psychologists in business schools: Brain drain or eye opener? Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 7(3), 284–303. https://doi.org/10.1111/iops.12151

Anderson

(2017). Private government: How employers rule our lives (and why we don't talk about it). Princeton University Press.

Ashford

S. J.

Lee

Bobko

(1989). Content, cause, and consequences of job insecurity: A theory-based measure and substantive test. Academy of Management Journal, 32(4), 803–829. https://doi.org/10.2307/256569

Astarlioglu

Kazozcu

S. B.

Varnalia

(2011). A qualitative study of coping strategies in the context of job insecurity. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 24(1), 421–434. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.09.065

Auer

(2006). Protected mobility for employment and decent work: Labour market security in a globalized world. Journal of Industrial Relations, 48(1), 21–40. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022185606059312

Bakker

A. B.

Demerouti

(2017). Job demands–resources theory: Taking stock and looking forward. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 22(3), 273–285. https://doi.org/10.1037/ocp0000056

Bal

P. M.

Dóci

(2018). Neoliberal ideology in work and organizational psychology. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 27(5), 536–548. https://doi.org/10.1080/1359432X.2018.1449108

Barrech

Seubert

Glaser

Gündel

(2018). Can a workplace leadership intervention reduce job insecurity and improve health? Results from a field study. International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health, 91(5), 547–557. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00420-018-1302-y

Barsade

S. G.

Knight

A. P.

(2015). Group affect. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 2(1), 21–46. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-032414-111316

10.

Bartunek

J. M.

Seo

M. G.

(2002). Qualitative research can add new meanings to quantitative research. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 23(2), 237–242. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.132

11.

Bazzoli

Brondino

De Witte

Pasini

(2021). Development and psychometric properties of the job insecurity appraisals scale. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 37(4), 313–324. https://doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759/a000611

12.

Bazzoli

Probst

T. M.

(2002a). Vulnerable workers in insecure jobs: A critical meta-synthesis of qualitative evidence. Applied Psychology: An International Review. https://doi.org/10.1111/apps.12415

13.

Bazzoli

Probst

T. M.

(2022c). COVID-19 Moral disengagement and prevention behaviors: The impact of workplace COVID-19 safety climate and employee job insecurity. Safety Science, 150(1), 105703. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2022.105703

14.

Bazzoli

Probst

T. M.

Lee

H. J.

(2021b). Economic stressors, COVID-19 attitudes, worry, and behaviors among U.S. Working adults: A mixture analysis. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(5), 2338. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18052338

15.

Bazzoli

Probst

T. M.

(2022b). Psychometric properties of the shortened and rescaled job security index and job security satisfaction scale. Applied Psychology: An International Review. https://doi.org/10.1111/apps.12397

16.

Benach

Vives

Amable

Vanroelen

Tarafa

Muntaner

(2014). Precarious employment, understanding an emerging social determinant of health. Annual Review of Public Health, 35(1), 229–253. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-032013-182500

17.

Bender

K. A.

Sloane

P. J.

(1999). Trade union membership, tenure and the level of job insecurity. Applied Economics, 31(1), 123–135. https://doi.org/10.1080/000368499324615

18.

Berger

P. L.

Luckmann

(1966). The social construction of reality: A treatise in the sociology of knowledge. Anchor Books.

19.

Bhandari

A. K.

Heshmati

(2006). Wage inequality and job insecurity among permanent and contract workers in India: Evidence from organized manufacturing industries. IZA Discussion Papers, No. 2097.

20.

Blei

D. M.

A. Y.

Jordan

M. I.

(2003). Latent dirichlet allocation. Journal of Machine Learning Research, 3(Jan), 993–1022.

21.

Blomqvist

Persitera

Låstad

Hanson

L. L. M.

(2020). Associations between cognitive and affective job insecurity and incident purchase of psychotropic drugs: A prospective cohort study of Swedish employees. Journal of Affective Disorders, 266(1), 215–222. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2020.01.078

22.

Borg

Elizur

(1992). Job insecurity: Correlates, moderators and measurement. International Journal of Manpower, 13(2), 13–26. https://doi.org/10.1108/01437729210010210

23.

Boya

FÖ

Demiral

Ergör

Akvardar

De Witte

(2008). Effects of perceived job insecurity on perceived anxiety and depression in nurses. Industrial Health, 46(6), 613–619. https://doi.org/10.2486/indhealth.46.613

24.

Boyd

R. L.

(2018). MEH: Meaning extraction helper. https://www.ryanboyd.io/software/meh.

25.

Boyer

(2006). Employment and decent work in the era of flexicurity. Archive Ouverte en Sciences de L'Homme et de la Société.

26.

Brashers

D. E.

(2001). Communication and uncertainty management. Journal of Communication, 51(3), 477–497. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2001.tb02892.x

27.

Brondino

Bazzoli

Vander Elst

De Witte

Pasini

(2020). Validation and measurement invariance of the multidimensional qualitative job insecurity scale. Quality & Quantity, 54(3), 925–942. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-020-00966-y

28.

Budros

(1997). The new capitalism and organizational rationality: The adoption of downsizing programs, 1979–1994. Social Forces, 76(1), 229–250. https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/76.1.229

29.

Bulbulia

Schjoedt

Shaver

J. H.

Sosis

Wildman

W. J.

(2021). Causal inference in regression: Advice to authors. Religion, Brain and Behavior, 11(4), 353–360. https://doi.org/10.1080/2153599X.2021.2001259

30.

Burchell

(2011). A temporal comparison of the effects of unemployment and job insecurity on wellbeing. Sociological Research Online, 16(1), 66–78. https://doi.org/10.5153/sro.2277

31.

Burgard

(2020). Linking job security and mental health: Challenges and future directions. American Journal of Epidemiology, 190(2), 216–219. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwaa039

32.

Burrell

Morgan

(1979). Sociological paradigms and organizational analysis. Gower.

33.

Bussing

(1999). Can control at work and social support moderate psychological consequences of job insecurity? Results from a quasi-experimental study in the steel industry. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 8(2), 219–242. https://doi.org/10.1080/135943299398339

34.

Cadigan

Kirk

(2020). On thin ice: Bureaucratic processes of monetary sanctions and job insecurity. RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences, 6(1), 113–131. https://doi.org/10.7758/rsf.2020.6.1.05

35.

Campbell

D. T.

(1969). Ethnocentrism of disciplines and the fish-scale model of omniscience. In Sherif

Sherif

C. W.

(Eds.), Interdisciplinary relationships in the social sciences (pp. 328–348). Aldine Transaction.

36.

Cazes

de Laiglesia

J. R.

(2015). Temporary contracts and wage inequality. In Berg

(Ed.), Labour markets, institutions and inequality (pp. 147–183). Edward Elgar Publishing.

37.

Cheng

Chen

C. W.

Chen

C. J.

Chiang

T. L.

(2005). Job insecurity and its association with health among employees in the Taiwanese general population. Social Science & Medicine, 61(1), 41–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2004.11.039

38.

Cole

(1983). The hierarchy of the sciences? American Journal of Sociology, 89(1), 111–139. https://doi.org/10.1086/227835

39.

Colquitt

J. A.

(2001). On the dimensionality of organizational justice: A construct validation of a measure. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(3), 386–400. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.86.3.386

40.

Cronin

M. A.

Homan

A. C.

(2020). From the (new) editors. Organizational Psychology Review, 10(1), 3–5. https://doi.org/10.1177/2041386620908954

41.

Debus

M. E.

Probst

T. M.

König

C. J.

Kleinmann

(2012). Catch me if I fall! enacted uncertainty avoidance and the social safety net as country-level moderators in the job insecurity–job attitudes link. Journal of Applied Psychology, 97(3), 690–698. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027832

42.

De Cuyper

De Witte

(2006). The impact of job insecurity and contract type on attitudes, well–being and behavioural reports: A psychological contract perspective. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 79(3), 395–409. https://doi.org/10.1348/096317905X53660

43.

De Cuyper

Mäkikangas

Kinnunen

Mauno

Witte

H. D.

(2012). Cross–lagged associations between perceived external employability, job insecurity, and exhaustion: Testing gain and loss spirals according to the conservation of resources theory. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 33(6), 770–788. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.1800

44.

De Cuyper

Van Hootegem

Smet

Houben

De Witte

(2019). All insecure, all good? Job insecurity profiles in relation to career correlates. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(15), 2640. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16152640

45.

DeNisi

A. S.

(2010). Challenges and opportunities for the academy in the next decade. Academy of Management Review, 35(2), 190–201. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.35.2.zok190

46.

De Witte

(2000). Work ethic and job insecurity: Assessment and consequences for well-being, satisfaction and performance at work. In Bouwen

De Witte

Taillieu

(Eds.), From group to community (pp. 325–350). Garant.

47.

De Witte

Näswall

(2003). Objective vs subjective job insecurity: Consequences of temporary work for job satisfaction and organizational commitment in four European countries. Economic and Industrial Democracy, 24(2), 149–188. https://doi.org/10.1177/0143831X03024002002

48.

De Witte

Pienaar

De Cuyper

(2016). Review of 30 years of longitudinal studies on the association between job insecurity and health and well-being: Is there causal evidence? Australian Psychologist, 51(1), 18–31. https://doi.org/10.1111/ap.12176

49.

De Witte

Vander Elst

De Cuyper

(2015). Job insecurity, health and well-being. In Vuori

Blonk

Price

R. H.

(Eds.), Sustainable working lives: Managing work transitions and health throughout the life course (pp. 109–128). Springer.

50.

Dickinson

(2015). ‘In December we are rich, in January we are poor’: Consumption, saving, stealing and insecurity in the kasi. In Khadiagala

G. M.

Naidoo

Pillay

Southall

(Eds.), New South African review 5: Beyond marikana (pp. 229–244). Wits University Press.

51.

Dilchert

Ones

D. S.

(2012). Environmental sustainability in and of organizations. Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 5(4), 503–511. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1754-9434.2012.01489.x

52.

Duffy

R. D.

Kim

H. J.

Gensmer

N. P.

Raque-Bogdan

T. L.

Douglass

R. P.

England

J. W.

Buyukgoze-Kavas

(2019). Linking decent work with physical and mental health: A psychology of working perspective. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 112(1), 384–395. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2019.05.002

53.

Ellonen

Nätti

(2015). Job insecurity and the unemployment rate: Micro-and macro-level predictors of perceived job insecurity among Finnish employees 1984–2008. Economic and Industrial Democracy, 36(1), 51–71. https://doi.org/10.1177/0143831X13495720

54.

Erlinghagen

(2008). Self-perceived job insecurity and social context: A multi-level analysis of 17 European countries. European Sociological Review, 24(2), 183–197. https://doi.org/10.1093/esr/jcm042

55.

Ferrie

J. E.

Shipley

M. J.

Newman

Stansfeld

S. A.

Marmot

(2005). Self-reported job insecurity and health in the whitehall II study: Potential explanations of the relationship. Social Science & Medicine, 60(7), 1593–1602. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2004.08.006

56.

Fleming

(2017). The human capital hoax: Work, debt and insecurity in the era of uberization. Organization Studies, 38(5), 691–709. https://doi.org/10.1177/0170840616686129

57.

Friedman

(2014). Workers without employers: Shadow corporations and the rise of the gig economy. Review of Keynesian Economics, 2(2), 171–188. https://doi.org/10.4337/roke.2014.02.03

58.

Fullerton

A. S.

Anderson

K. F.

(2013). The role of job insecurity in explanations of racial health inequalities. Sociological Forum, 28(2), 308–325. https://doi.org/10.1111/socf.12020

59.

Fullerton

A. S.

Wallace

(2007). Traversing the flexible turn: US workers’ perceptions of job security, 1977–2002. Social Science Research, 36(1), 201–221. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2005.09.005

60.

Garz

(2012). Job insecurity perceptions and media coverage of labor market policy. Journal of Labor Research, 33(4), 528–544. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12122-012-9146-9

61.

Gergen

K. J.

(1978). Towards generative theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36(11), 1344–1360. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.36.11.1344

62.

Giunchi

Vonthron

A. M.

Ghislieri

(2019). Perceived job insecurity and sustainable wellbeing: Do coping strategies help? Sustainability, 11(3), 784. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11030784

63.

Goodley

Inman

(2013, August). Zero-hours contracts cover more than 1m UK workers: Poll of more than 1,000 employers reveals controversial contract used far more widely in the UK than government data suggests. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2013/aug/05/zero-hours-contracts-cover-1m-uk-workers.

64.

Greenhalgh

Rosenblatt

(1984). Job insecurity: Toward conceptual clarity. Academy of Management Review, 9(3), 438–448. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.1984.4279673

65.

Griffiths

T. L.

Steyvers

(2004). Finding scientific topics. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 101(suppl_1), 5228–5235. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0307752101

66.

Grün

Hornik

(2011). Topicmodels: An R package for fitting topic models. Journal of Statistical Software, 40(13), 1–30. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v040.i13

67.

Hambrick

D. C.

(2007). The field of management's devotion to theory: Too much of a good thing? The Academy of Management Journal, 50(6), 1346–1352. https://doi.org/10.2307/20159476

68.

Hartley

A. L. J.

(1998). Organizational commitment and job insecurity in a changing public service organization. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 7(3), 341–354. https://doi.org/10.1080/135943298398745

69.

Hartley

Klandermans

P. G.

(1986). Individual and collective responses to job insecurity. In Debus

Schroiff

H.-W.

(Eds.), The psychology of work and organization (pp. 129–136). Elsevier.

70.

Harvey

(2005). Neoliberalism: A brief history. Oxford University Press.

71.

Hassard

Morris

(2018). Contrived competition and manufactured uncertainty: Understanding managerial job insecurity narratives in large corporations. Work, Employment and Society, 32(3), 564–580. https://doi.org/10.1177/0950017017751806

72.

Hayes

A. F.

(2018). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis. Guilford Press.

73.

Hellgren

Sverke

Isaksson

(1999). A two-dimensional approach to job insecurity: Consequences for employee attitudes and well-being. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 8(2), 179–195. https://doi.org/10.1080/135943299398311

74.

Highhouse

Zickar

M. J.

Melick

S. R.

(2020). Prestige and relevance of the scholarly journals: Impressions of SIOP members. Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 13(3), 273–290. https://doi.org/10.1017/iop.2020.2

75.

Hobfoll

S. E.

(1989). Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress. American Psychologist, 44(3), 513–524. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.44.3.513

76.

Höge

Sora

Weber

W. G.

Peiró

J. M.

Caballer

(2015). Job insecurity, worries about the future, and somatic complaints in two economic and cultural contexts: A study in Spain and Austria. International Journal of Stress Management, 22(3), 223–242. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0039164

77.

Huang

G. H.

Niu

Lee

Ashford

S. J.

(2012). Differentiating cognitive and affective job insecurity: Antecedents and outcomes. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 33(6), 752–769. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.1815

78.

Jiang

Lavaysse

L. M.

(2018). Cognitive and affective job insecurity: A meta-analysis and a primary study. Journal of Management, 44(6), 2307–2342. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206318773853

79.

Jiang

Probst

T. M.

(2016). A multilevel examination of affective job insecurity climate on safety outcomes. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 21(3), 366–377. https://doi.org/10.1037/ocp0000014

80.

Johnson

C. D.

Messe

L. A.

Crano

W. D.

(1984). Predicting job performance of low income workers: The work opinion questionnaire. Personnel Psychology, 37(2), 291–299. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.1984.tb01451.x

81.

Judge

T. A.

(2003). Marginalizing the Journal of Applied Psychology. The Industrial-Organizational Psychologist, 40(1), 56–59.

82.

Karatepe

O. M.

Rezapouraghdam

Hassannia

(2020). Job insecurity, work engagement and their effects on hotel employees’ non-green and nonattendance behaviors. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 87(1), 102472. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2020.102472

83.

Khadem

(2019). Australia has a high rate of casual work and many jobs face automation threats: OECD. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-04-25/australia-sees-increase-in-casual-workers-ai-job-threats/11043772.

84.

Kim

Jeong

Kim

Y. K.

Jang

S. I.

Park

E. C.

(2019). Gender differences with regard to perceived job insecurity and insomnia in a working population. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 61(12), e474–e479. https://doi.org/10.1097/JOM.0000000000001729

85.

Kim

T. J.

von dem Knesebeck

(2016). Perceived job insecurity, unemployment and depressive symptoms: A systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective observational studies. International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health, 89(4), 561–573. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00420-015-1107-1

86.

Kinnunen

Mäkikangas

Mauno

De Cuyper

De Witte

(2014). Development of perceived job insecurity across two years: Associations with antecedents and employee outcomes. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 19(2), 243–258. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035835

87.

Klandermans

Hesselink

J. K.

Van Vuuren

(2010). Employment status and job insecurity: On the subjective appraisal of an objective status. Economic and Industrial Democracy, 31(4), 557–577. https://doi.org/10.1177/0143831X09358362

88.

Klandermans

van Vuuren

(1999). Job insecurity: Introduction. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 8(2), 145–153. https://doi.org/10.1080/135943299398294

89.

Klug

Bernhard-Oettel

Mäkikangas

Kinnunen

Sverke

(2019). Development of perceived job insecurity among young workers: A latent class growth analysis. International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health, 92(6), 901–918. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00420-019-01429-0

90.

Kobayashi

V. B.

Mol

S. T.

Berkers

H. A.

Kismihok

Den Hartog

D. N.

(2018). Text mining in organizational research. Organizational Research Methods, 21(3), 733–765. https://doi.org/10.1177/1094428117722619

91.

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

Klein

K. J.

(2000). A multilevel approach to theory and research in organizations: Contextual, temporal, and emergent processes. In Klein

K. J.

Kozlowski

S. W. J.

(Eds.), Multilevel theory, research, and methods in organizations, (pp. 3–90). Jossey-Bass.

92.

Kuhn

T. S.

(1970). The structure of scientific revolutions. University of Chicago Press.

93.

LaMontagne

A. D.

Too

L. S.

Laura Punnett

Milner

A. J.

(2020). Changes in job security and mental health: An analysis of 14 annual waves of an Australian working population panel survey. American Journal of Epidemiology, 190(2), 207–215. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwaa038

94.

Langerak

J. B.

Koen

van Hooft

E. A. J.

(2022). How to minimize job insecurity: The role of proactive and reactive coping over time. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 136(1), 103729. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2022.103729

95.

Larson

J. H.

Wilson

S. M.

Beley

(1994). The impact of job insecurity on marital and family relationships. Family Relations, 43(2), 138–143. https://doi.org/10.2307/585315

96.

László

K. D.

Pikhart

Kopp

M. S.

Bobak

Pajak

Malyutina

Marmot

(2010). Job insecurity and health: A study of 16 European countries. Social Science & Medicine, 70(6), 867–874. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2009.11.022

97.

Lazarus

R. S.

Folkman

(1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. Springer.

98.

Lee

Huang

G. H.

Ashford

S. J.

(2018). Job insecurity and the changing workplace: Recent developments and the future trends in job insecurity research. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 5(1), 335–359. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-032117-104651

99.

Lim

V. K.

Loo

G. L.

(2003). Effects of parental job insecurity and parenting behaviors on youth’s self-efficacy and work attitudes. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 63(1), 86–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0001-8791(02)00020-9

100.

Lim

V. K.

Sng

Q. S.

(2006). Does parental job insecurity matter? Money anxiety, money motives, and work motivation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91(5), 1078–1087. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.91.5.1078

101.

Mäkikangas

De Cuyper

Mauno

Kinnunen

(2013). A longitudinal person-centred view on perceived employability: The role of job insecurity. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 22(4), 490–503. https://doi.org/10.1080/1359432X.2012.665230

102.

Mauno

Leskinen

Kinnunen

(1999). Multi-wave, multi-variable models of job insecurity: Applying different scales in studying the stability of job insecurity. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 22(8), 919–935. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.122

103.

MBO Partners (2019). The state of independence in America. https://www.mbopartners.com/state-of-independence.

104.

McNeish

Stapleton

L. M.

Silverman

R. D.

(2017). On the unnecessary ubiquity of hierarchical linear modeling. Psychological Methods, 22(1), 114–140. https://doi.org/10.1037/met0000078

105.

Meehl

P. E.

(1990). Appraising and amending theories: The strategy of lakatosian defense and two principles that warrant it. Psychological Inquiry, 1(2), 108–141. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327965pli0102_1

106.

Miller

(2007). Paradigm prison, or in praise of atheoretic research. Strategic Organization, 5(2), 177–184. https://doi.org/10.1177/1476127007077558

107.

Mohr

G. B.

(2000). The changing significance of different stressors after the announcement of bankruptcy: A longitudinal investigation with special emphasis on job insecurity. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 21(3), 337–359. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-1379(200005)21:3 < 337::AID-JOB18>3.0.CO;2-G

108.

Mullainathan

Shafir

(2014). Scarcity: The true cost of not having enough. Penguin.

109.

Muntaner

Chung

Solar

Santana

Castedo

Benach

(2010). A macro-level model of employment relations and health inequalities. International Journal of Health Services, 40(2), 215–221. https://doi.org/10.2190/HS.40.2.c

110.

Näswall

De Witte

(2003). Who feels insecure in Europe? Predicting job insecurity from background variables. Economic and Industrial Democracy, 24(2), 189–215. https://doi.org/10.1177/0143831X03024002003

111.

Nolan

(2009). ‘Working to live, not living to work’: An exploratory study of the relationship between men's work orientation and job insecurity in the UK. Gender, Work & Organization, 16(2), 179–197. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0432.2008.00426.x

112.

Office of National Statistics (2018). Contracts that do not guarantee a minimum number of hours: April 2018. https://www.ons.gov.uk/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/articles/contractsthatdonotguaranteeaminimumnumberofhours/april2018#how-many-no-guaranteed-hours-contracts-nghcs-are-there.

113.

Page

M. J.

McKenzie

J. E.

Bossuyt

P. M.

Boutron

Hoffmann

T. C.

Murlow

C. D.

Shamseer

Tetzlaff

J. M.

Moher

(2021). The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. The BMJ, 372(8286), 71. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.n71

114.

Pavlova

M. K.

Silbereisen

R. K.

(2014). Coping with occupational uncertainty and formal volunteering across the life span. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 85(1), 93–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2014.05.005

115.

Pienaar

De Witte

Hellgren

Sverke

(2013). The cognitive/affective distinction of job insecurity: Validation and differential relations. Southern African Business Review, 17(2), 1–22.

116.

Platt

J. R.

(1964). Strong inference: Certain systematic methods of scientific thinking may produce much more rapid progress than others. Science (New York, N.Y.), 146(3642), 347–353. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.146.3642.347

117.

Prado-Gascó

del Carmen Giménez-Espert

De Witte

(2021). Job insecurity in nursing: A bibliometric analysis. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(2), 663. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18020663

118.

Probst

T. M.

(2003). Development and validation of the job security index and the job security satisfaction scale: A classical test theory and IRT approach. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 76(4), 451–467. https://doi.org/10.1348/096317903322591587

119.

Probst

T. M.

Bazzoli

Jenkins

M. R.

Jiang

López Bohle

(2021). Coping with job insecurity: Employees with grit create I-deals. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 26(5), 437–447. https://doi.org/10.1037/ocp0000220

120.

Probst

T. M.

Brubaker

T. L.

(2001). The effects of job insecurity on employee safety outcomes: Cross-sectional and longitudinal explorations. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 6(2), 139–159. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-8998.6.2.139

121.

Probst

T. M.

Lee

H. J.

Bazzoli

(2020). Economic stressors and the enactment of CDC-recommended COVID-19 prevention behaviors: The impact of state-level context. Journal of Applied Psychology, 105(12), 1397–1407. https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000797

122.

Probst

T. M.

Lee

H. J.

Bazzoli

Jenkins

M. R.

Bettac

E. L.

(2021). Work and non-work sickness presenteeism: The role of workplace COVID-19 climate. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 63(8), 713–718. https://doi.org/10.1097/JOM.0000000000002240

123.

Quinlan

Bohle

(2009). Overstretched and unreciprocated commitment: Reviewing research on the occupational health and safety effects of downsizing and job insecurity. International Journal of Health Services, 39(1), 1–44. https://doi.org/10.2190/HS.39.1.a

124.

Ratinaud

(2009). IRaMuTeQ: R Interface for multidimensional analysis of texts and questionnaires. http://www.iramuteq.org.

125.

Reinert

(1983). A method for the descending hierarchical classification: Application to the contextual lexical analysis. Cahiers de L'analyse des Données, 8(2), 187–198.

126.

Risher

(2020, February). The gig economy and BLS surveys. https://www.govexec.com/management/2020/02/gig-economy-and-bls-surveys/163089/.

127.

Roskies

Louis-Guerin

(1990). Job insecurity in managers: Antecedents and consequences. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 11(5), 345–359. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.4030110503

128.

Ruggs

E. N.

Hebl

M. R.

Law

Cox

C. B.

Roehling

M. V.

Wiener

R. L.

(2013). Gone fishing: I–O psychologists’ missed opportunities to understand marginalized employees’ experiences with discrimination. Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 6(1), 39–60. https://doi.org/10.1111/iops.12007

129.

Saylors

Trafimow

(2021). Why the increasing use of complex causal models is a problem: On the danger sophisticated theoretical narratives pose to truth. Organizational Research Methods, 24(3), 616–629. https://doi.org/10.1177/1094428119893452

130.

Schaufeli

W. B.

(2016). Job insecurity research is still alive and kicking twenty years later: A commentary. Australian Psychologist, 51(1), 32–35. https://doi.org/10.1111/ap.12201

131.

Schultz

Hatch

M. J.

(1996). Living with multiple paradigms: The case of paradigm interplay in organizational culture studies. Academy of Management Review, 21(2), 529–557. https://doi.org/10.2307/258671

132.

Selenko

Mäkikangas

Stride

C. B.

(2017). Does job insecurity threaten who you are? Introducing a social identity perspective to explain well–being and performance consequences of job insecurity. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 38(6), 856–875. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.2172

133.

Selenko

Stiglbauer

Batinic

(2020). More evidence on the latent benefits of work: Bolstered by volunteering while threatened by job insecurity. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 29(3), 364–376. https://doi.org/10.1080/1359432X.2019.1706487

134.

Shoss

M. K.

(2017). Job insecurity: An integrative review and agenda for future research. Journal of Management, 43(6), 1911–1939. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206317691574

135.

Sinclair

R. R.

Probst

T. M.

Watson

G. P.

Bazzoli

(2021). Caught between Scylla and charybdis: How economic stressors and occupational risk factors influence workers’ occupational health reactions to COVID-19. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 70(1), 85–119. https://doi.org/10.1111/apps.12301

136.

Sinclair

R. R.

Sears

L. E.

Probst

Zajack

(2010). A multilevel model of economic stress and employee well-being. In Houdmont

Leka

(Eds.), Contemporary occupational health psychology (pp. 1–20). Wiley.

137.

Sjöberg

(2018). Why some employees might thrive on job insecurity: Human values as a moderating factor in the job insecurity-wellbeing relationship. International Journal of Wellbeing, 8(1), 34–49. https://doi.org/10.5502/ijw.v8i1.633

138.

Sora

Caballer

Peiró

J. M.

Silla

Gracia

F. J.

(2010). Moderating influence of organizational justice on the relationship between job insecurity and its outcomes: A multilevel analysis. Economic and Industrial Democracy, 31(4), 613–637. https://doi.org/10.1177/0143831X10365924

139.

Sora

De Cuyper

Caballer

Peiró

J. M.

De Witte

(2013). Outcomes of job insecurity climate: The role of climate strength. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 62(3), 382–405. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-0597.2012.00485.x

140.

Staw

B. M.

Sandelands

L. E.

Dutton

J. E.

(1981). Threat rigidity effects in organizational behavior: A multilevel analysis. Administrative Science Quarterly, 26(4), 501–524. https://doi.org/10.2307/2392337

141.

Suddaby

(2012). Editor’s comment. Academy of Management Review, 37(1), 6–9. https://doi.org/10.5465/armr.2011.0379

142.

Sutton

R. I.

Staw

B. M.

(1995). What theory is not. Administrative Science Quarterly, 40(3), 371–384. https://doi.org/10.2307/2393788

143.

Sverke

Hellgren

Näswall

(2002). No security: A meta-analysis and review of job insecurity and its consequences. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 7(3), 242–264. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-8998.7.3.242

144.

Trades Union Congress (2017, Dec. 4). Two-thirds of zero-hours workers want jobs with guaranteed hours, TUC polling reveals. https://www.tuc.org.uk/news/two-thirds-zero-hours-workers-want-jobs-guaranteed-hours-tuc-polling-reveals.

145.

Vander Elst

De Cuyper

De Witte

(2011). The role of perceived control in the relationship between job insecurity and psychosocial outcomes: Moderator or mediator? Stress and Health, 27(3), 215–227. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.1371

146.

Vander Elst

De Witte

De Cuyper

(2014). The job insecurity scale: A psychometric evaluation across five European countries. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 23(3), 364–380. https://doi.org/10.1080/1359432X.2012.745989

147.

van Vuuren

(1990). Met ontslag bedreigd: Werknemers in onzekerheid over hun arbeidsplaats bij veranderingen in de organisatie. VU Uitgeverij.

148.

Wallace

Fullerton

A. S.

(2003). Workers’ earnings in the new economy. Sociological Focus, 36(1), 7–27. https://doi.org/10.1080/00380237.2003.10570713

149.

Williams

C. L.

(2019). The deserving professional: Job insecurity and gender inequality in the oil and gas industry. Labour & Industry, 29(2), 199–212. https://doi.org/10.1080/10301763.2019.1600856

150.

Wittgenstein

(1953). Philosophical investigations. Basil Blackwell.