La malattia occlusiva della carotide interna rappresenta la causa di almeno il 30% degli ictus ischemici.
La lesione maggiormente a rischio è rappresentata dalla stenosi emodinamica. La amaurosi ipsilaterale e la emiplegia controlaterale alla stenosi costituiscono i sintomi patognomonici della malattia. Sono i deficit neurologici transitori emisferici, recenti e subentranti quelli che più frequentemente preludono all'ictus.
L'esame Eco-color Doppler consente lo screening più affidabile e la tromboendoarterectomia carotidea costituisce la miglior profilassi dell'ictus nel paziente sintomatico.
Barnett HJM and the EC/IC Bypass Study Group: Failure of Extracranial-Intracranial arterial bypass to reduce the risk of ischaemic stroke. Results of an international randomized trial. New Engl J Med313: 1191, 1985.
2.
BockRWLusbyRJ: Carotid plaque morphology and interpretation of the echolucent lesion. In: LabsKH: Diagnostic Vascular Ultrasound. Ed. Arnold, London1992: 82.
3.
BockRWGray-WeaceAC: The natural history of asymptomatic carotid artery disease. J Vasc Surg17: 160–171, 1993.
4.
BornGVR: Arterial thrombosis and its prevention. In: HayaseSMurauS: Proceedings of the Eight World Congress of Cardiology. Excerpta medica, Amsterdam1978: 81–91.
5.
BornGVR: Pathogenesis and properties of atherosclerotic lesions as exemplified by carotid plaques. In: LabsKHJagerKA: Diagnostic Vascular Ultrasound, Ed Arnold, London1992: 23–32.
6.
BoysenGLadegaard-PedersenHJ: Cerebral blood flow and internal carotid artery flow during carotid surgery. Stroke1: 253–260, 1970.
7.
BroadbentWH: Absence ofr pulsations on both radial arteries vessels being full of blood. Trans Clin Soc8: 165–168, 1875.
8.
CaplanLR: Clinical course and lesion distribution in carotid and middle cerebral artery occlusive disease. In: HennericiMSitzerGWegerHD: Carotid artery plaques, S. KargerBasel1988: 190–204.
9.
CarreaRMolinsMMurphyG: Surgical treatment of spontaneous thrombosis of the internal carotid artery in the neck: Carotid-carotideal anastomosis: Report of a case. Acta Neurol Lat Am1: 71–78, 1955.
10.
ChambersBRNorrisJW: The case against surgery for asymptomatic carotid stenosis. Stroke15: 964–967, 1984.
11.
ChiariH: Uber des verhaltwen des teilungswinkels der carotis communis bei der endarteriitis chronica deformans. Verh Dtsch Path Ges9: 326–330, 1905.
12.
ClarkePRDicksonJSmithBJ: Trauma thrombosis of internal carotid artery following a non penetrating injury and leading to infarction of the brain. Brit J Surgery43: 215, 1955.
13.
DennisMBamfordJ: Prognosis of transient ischemic attacks in the Oxfordshire community stroke project. Stroke21: 848–853, 1990.
14.
DelckerADienerHC: Quantification of atherosclerotic plaques in carotid arteries by three-dimension ultrasound. Brit J of Radiology67: 672–678, 1994.
15.
EastcottHMGPickeringGWRobC: Reconstruction of internal carotid artery in a patient with intermittent attacks of hemiplagia. Lancet2: 994–996, 1954.
European Carotid Surgery Trialists' Collaborative Group. The European Surgery Trial: Interim results for symptomatic patients with severe (70–99%) or with mild (0–29%) carotid stenosis. Lancet337: 1235, 1991.
18.
FalkE: Why the plaque rupture. Circulation, Supp III, 86, III, 30, III, 42, 1992.
19.
FisherM: Occlusion of the internal carotid artery. Arch Neurol Psychiatry65: 346–377, 1951.
20.
FisherMAdamsRDI: Observations on brain embolism with special reference to the mechanism of hemorrhagic infarction. J Neuropath Exp Neurol10: 92, 1951.
21.
FisherM: Transient monocular blindness associated with hemiplegia. Arch of Ophtalmology47: 167–203, 1952.
22.
FisherM: Occlusion of the carotid arteries. Arch Neurol Psychiatr72: 187–204, 1954.
23.
FryerJAMeyersPCApplebergM: Carotid intraplaque hemorrhage: Its significance of neovascularity. J Vasc Surgery6: 341–349, 1987.
24.
HollenhorstRwollen: Significance of bright plaques in the retinal arterioles. JAMA5: 23, 1961.
25.
HuntJR: The role of the carotid arteries in the causation of vascular lesions of the brain with remarks on certain special features of the symptomatology. Ann J Med Sci147: 704–713, 1914.
ImparatoAMRilesTSD: The importance of haemorrhage in the relationship between gross morphologic characteristics and cerebral symptons in 376 carotid artery plaque. Ann Surgery197: 195–204, 1983.
28.
IschikawaK: Natural history and classification of occlusive thromboarteriopathy (Takayasu's disease). Circulation57: 27, 1978.
29.
JohnsonJMKennellyMM: A natural history of asymptomatic cardiac plaque. Arch Surg120: 1010–1012, 1985.
30.
JohnsonBFVerlatoF: Clinical outcome in patients with mild and moderate carotid stenosis. J Vasc Surg21: 120–128, 1995.
31.
KauffmanHMLindTAClarkDA: Non penetrating trauma to the carotid artery with the secondary thrombosis and embolism. Treatment by thrombolysis. Acta Neuroch37: 219, 1977.
32.
KauppHAHaidSP: Aneurysm of Extracranial carotid artery. Surgery72: 946, 1972.
33.
KendallREMarshallJ: Role of hypertension in the genesis of transient focal cerebral ischaemic attaks. Brit Med J2: 344, 1963.
34.
KuDN: Early atherosclerosis and pulsatile flow in the human carotid bifurcation. In: YoshidaY, (Eds): Role of blood flow in atherogenesis. Springer Verlag, Berlin1988: 73–79.
35.
KyriakidesTMiddletonLT: The magnitude of the Problem: Stroke from carotid bifurcation disease without premonitory transient ischaemic attaks. Cerebral Revascularization Med Orion PG, London1993: 15–22.
36.
LangneanPBaptistisMJVuongPM: Surgical treatment of Takayasu's disease. Ann Surgery205: 157, 1987.
37.
LangsfeldMGray-WealeACLusbyRJ: The role of plaque morphology and diameter reduction in the development of new symptoms in asymptomatic carotid arteries. J Vasc Surg9: 548–557, 1989.
38.
LusbyRJMachlederHI: Vessel wall and blood flow dynamics in arterial disease. Phr Trans R Soc London294: 231, 1981.
39.
LusbyRJFerrellLDEhrenfeldWF: Carotid plaque hemorrage: Its role in the production of cerebral ischaemia. Arch Surg117: 1479–1502, 1982.
40.
LusbyRJWoodcockJP: Transient ischaemic attacks: The static and dynamic morphology of the carotide bifurcation. Br J Surg (Suppl) 241: 1982.
41.
LusbyRJFerrellLDWylieEJ: The significance of intraplaque haemorrhage in the pathogenesis of carotid atherosclerosis. In: BerganJJJaoJ-St (Eds): Cerebro-vascular insufficiency. Grune & Shatton, New York1983: 41.
42.
LusbyRJFerrellLD: Stroke: The significance of carotid plaque haemorrhage and ulceration. Stroke14: 133, 1983.
43.
LusbyRJ: Plaque characterisation: Does it identify high risk groups? In: BernsteinEE: Cerebral revascularisation. Med Orion, London1993, 93.
44.
Mc BrienDJBradleyRDAshtonN: The nature of retinal emboli in stenosis of the internal carotid artery. Lancet1: 697, 1963.
45.
MeissnerIWhisnantJPGarrawayWM: Hypertension management and stroke recurrence in a community (Rochester Minnesota 1950–1979). Stroke19: 459–463, 1988.
46.
MeyerJSLeidermanHDenny-BrownD: Electroencephalographic study of insufficency of the basilar and carotid arteries in man. Neurology6: 455, 1956.
47.
MohrJRCaplanLRMelskiJW: The Harvard Cooperative Stroke Registry: A prospective registry. Neurology28: 754, 1978.
48.
MonetaGLTaylorDC: Asymptomatic high-grade internal carotid artery stenosis. Is stratification according to risk factors or duplex spectral analysis possible?J Vasc Surgery10: 475–483, 1989.
49.
MonizE: L'encephalographic arterielle. Son importance dans la localisation des tumeurs cerebrales. Rev Neurologique2: 72, 1927.
50.
MonizELimaADe LacerdaR: Hemiplegies par thrombose de la carotide interne. Press Med45: 977–980, 1937.
NorrisJWZhuCZ: Vascular risks of asymptomatic carotid plaque. Am J Surg154: 659–662, 1987.
53.
North American Symptomatic Carotid Endarterectomy Trials Collaborators: Beneficial effect of carotid endarterectomy in symptomatic patients with high grade stenosis. N Eng J Med325: 445, 1991.
54.
O'DonnellTFJrCallowAD: Ultrasound characteristic of recurrent carotid disease: Hypothesis explaining the low incidence of symptomatic recurrance. J Vasc Surg2: 26–41, 1985.
55.
PalubinskasAJRipleyHR: Fibromuscolar hyperplasia in extrarenal arteries. Radiology82: 451, 1964.
56.
PenzolotF: Uber thrombose (autochtone or der embolische) der carotis. Dtsch Arch Klin Med28: 80, 1881.
57.
PerssonAVRobichauxWT: The natural history of carotid plaque development. Ann Surgery118: 1048, 1983.
58.
RenemanRSVan MerodeT: Velocity patterns and vessel wall properties in the carotid artery bulb in man. Their relation to atherosclerosis. In: HennericiMSitzerGWegerHD: Carotid artery plaques. Karger, Basel1988: 143–162.
59.
SaccoRLWolfPA: Survival and recurrence following stroke. The Framingham study. Stroke13: 290–295, 1982.
60.
SaccoRLEllembergJH: Infarcts of undetermined cause. The NINCDS Stroke Data Bank. Ann Neurol25: 382, 1989.
61.
SavoryWS: Case of a young woman in whom the main arteries of both upper extremities and of the left side of the neck were throughout completely obliterated. Med Chir Trans39: 205–219, 1856.
62.
SterpettiAVSchultzRD: Ultrasonongraphic features of carotid plaque and the risk of subsequent neurologic deficits. Surgery104: 652–660, 1988.
63.
StrandnessDEJr: Duplex Scanning in vascular disorders. Raven press, New York1993: 145–147.
64.
SundtTMPearsonBW: Surgical management of aneurysms of the distal extracranial internal carotid artery. J Neurosurgery64: 169, 1986.
