American Society for Testing and Materials. Standard specification for performance and safety requirements for resuscitators intended for use with humans. Designation: F-920-85. Philadelphia: Am Soc Testing & Materials, 1985.
2.
International Organization for Standardization. International Standard ISO 8382:1988 (E)—Resuscitators intended for use with humans. New York: American National Standards Institute, 1988.
3.
Standards and guidelines for cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) and emergency cardiac care (ECC). JAMA1986;255:2841–3044.
4.
KreiselmanJ.A new resuscitation apparatus. Anesthesiology1943;4:608–611.
5.
LucasBG, TrotmanCG, WhitcherHW. A hand-operated resuscitator. Br Med J1959;1:1165.
6.
RubenH.Self-contained resuscitation equipment. Can Med Assoc J1959;80:44–45.
7.
National Climatic Data Center. 1988 U.S. local climatic annual summary. Asheville NC: Data Operations Branch, National Climatic Data Center, 1988.
8.
SakladM, GulatiR.Adaption of Ambu respirator for high oxygen concentration. Anesthesiology1963;24:877–878.
9.
KarlWF. Oxygen concentrations achieved with manual resuscitator. NY State J Med1966;66:2018–2019.
10.
RedickL, DunbarR, MacDougallD, MerketT.An evaluation of hand operated self-inflating resuscitation equipment. Anesth Analg1970;49:28–32.
11.
CardenE, BernsteinM.Investigation of the nine most commonly used resuscitator bags. JAMA1970;212:589–592.
12.
ECRI. Evaluation: manually operated resuscitators. Health Devices1971;1:13–17.
13.
RedickL.Hand operated self-inflating resuscitation equipment: a re-evaluation. Anesth Analg1971;50:554–556.
14.
WhiteR, GillesB, PolkB.Oxygen delivery by hand-operated emergency ventilation devices. J Am Coll Emerg Physicians1973;2:2–5.
15.
ECRI. Evaluation: manually operated infant resuscitators. Health Devices1973;2:240–248.
16.
ECRI. Evaluation: manually operated resuscitators. Health Devices1974;3:164–176.
17.
SteinbachRB, CardenE.1973 assessment of eight adult resuscitator bags. Respir Care1975;20:69–76.
PrianoL, HamJ.A simple method to increase the FDO2 of resuscitator bags. Crit Care Med1978;6:48–49.
22.
ECRI. Evaluation: manual resuscitators. Health Devices1979;8:133–146.
23.
FitzmauriceMW, BarnesTA. Oxygen delivery performance of three adult resuscitation bags. Respir Care1980;25:928–933.
24.
LeBouefL.1980 assessment of eight adult manual resuscitators. Respir Care1980;25:1136–1142.
25.
BarnesTA, WatsonMW. Oxygen delivery performance of four adult resuscitation bags. Respir Care1982;27:139–146.
26.
BarnesT, WatsonM.Oxygen delivery performance of old and new designs of the Laerdal, Vitalograph, and AMBU adult manual resuscitators. Respir Care1983;28:1121–1128.
27.
PhillipsGD, ShowronskiGA. Manual resuscitators and portable ventilators. Anaesth Intensive Care1986;14:306–313.
28.
CampbellTP, StewartRD, KaplanRM, DeMichieiRV, MortonR.Oxygen enrichment of bag-valve-mask units during positive-pressure ventilation: a comparison of various techniques. Ann Emerg Med1988;17:232–235.
29.
BarnesTA, PotashR.Evaluation of five disposable operator-powered adult resuscitators. Respir Care1989;34:254–261.
30.
ECRI. Exhaled-air pulmonary resuscitators (EAPRs) and disposable manual pulmonary resuscitators (DMPRs). Health Devices1989;18:333–352.
31.
BarnesTA, McGarryW.Evaluation of ten disposable manual resuscitators. Respir Care1990;35:960–968.
32.
BarnesTA, StockwellDL. Evaluation of ten manual resuscitators across an operational temperature range of −18°C to 50°C. Respir Care1991;36:161–172.
33.
ZiecheckHD, NurickBA, FadaleV.A method for increased inspired O2 concentration with the Hope resuscitator. Respir Care1973;18:409–411.
34.
SainsburyDA, DavisR, WalkerMC. Artificial ventilation for cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Med J Aust1984;141:509–511.
35.
JesudianMC, HarrisonRR, KeenanRL, MaullKI. Bag-valve-mask ventilation; two rescuers are better than one: preliminary report. Crit Care Med1985;13:122–123.
36.
HessD, BaranC.Ventilatory volumes using mouth-to-mouth, mouth-to-mask, and bag-valve-mask techniques. Am J Emerg Med1985;3:292–296.
37.
LawrencePJ, SivaneswaranN.Ventilation during cardiopulmonary resuscitation: which method?Med J Aust1985;143:443–446.
38.
HarrisonRR, MaullKI, KeenanRL, BoyanCP. Mouth-to-mask ventilation: a superior method of rescue breathing. Ann Emerg Med1982;11:74–76.
39.
SeidelinPH, StolarekIH, LittlewoodDG. Comparison of six methods of emergency ventilation. Lancet1986;2:1274–1275.
40.
GiffenPR, HopeCE. Preliminary evaluation of a prototype tube-valve-mask ventilator for emergency artificial ventilation. Ann Emerg Med1991;20:262–266.
41.
EllingR, PolitisJ.An evaluation of emergency medical technicians' ability to use manual ventilation devices. Ann Emerg Med1983;12:765–768.
42.
MelkerRJ, BannerMJ. Ventilation during CPR: two-rescuer standards reappraised. Ann Emerg Med1985;14:397–402.
43.
JohannigmanJA, BransonRD. Oxygen enrichment of expired gas for mouth-to-mask resuscitation. Respir Care1991;36:99–103.
44.
RubenH, KnudsenEJ, CarugatiG.Gastric inflation in relation to airway pressure. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand1961;5:107–114.
45.
VyasH, MilnerAD, HopkinIE. Face mask resuscitation: does it lead to gastric distension?Arch Dis Child1983;58:373–375.
46.
OrnatoJP, BrysonBL, DonovanPJ, FarquharsonRR, JaegerC.Measurement of ventilation during cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Crit Care Med1983;11:79–82.
47.
CumminsRO, AustinD, GravesJR, LitwinPE, PierceJ.Ventilation skills of emergency medical technicians: a teaching challenge for emergency medicine. Ann Emerg Med1986;15:1187–1192.
48.
BarnesTA, AdamsG.Ventilatory volumes using mouth-to-mouth, bag-valve-mask, and pocket face mask (abstract). Respir Care1991;36:1292.
49.
StewartRD. Influence of mask design on bag-mask ventilation. Ann Emerg Med1985;14:403–406.
50.
TerndrupTE, KanterRK, CherryRA. A comparison of infant ventilation methods performed by prehospital personnel. Ann Emerg Med1989;18:607–611.
51.
ThompsonJE, FarrellE, McManusM.Neonatal and pediatric airway emergencies. Respir Care1992;37:582–599.
52.
KanterRK. Evaluation of mask-bag ventilation in resuscitation of infants. AJDC1987;141:761–763.
53.
NagelEL, FineEG, KrischerJP, DavisJH. Complications of CPR. Crit Care Med1981;9:424.
54.
StewartRD, ParisPM, WinterPM, PeltonGH, CannonGM. Field endotracheal intubation by paramedical personnel success rates and complications. Chest1984;85:341–345.
55.
GussDA, PoslusznyM.Paramedic orotracheal intubation: a feasibility study. Am J Emerg Med1984;2:399–401.
56.
PepePE, CopassMK, JoyceTH. Prehospital endotracheal intubation: rationale for training emergency medical personnel. Ann Emerg Med1985;14:1085–1092.
57.
JacobsLM, BerrizbeitiaLD, BennettB, MadiganC.Endotracheal intubation in the prehospital phase of emergency medical care. JAMA1983;250:2175–2177.
58.
DeLeoBC. Endotracheal intubation by rescue squad personnel. Heart Lung1977;6:851–854.
59.
GoldenbergIF, CampionBC, SieboldCM, McBrideJW, LongLA. Esophageal gastric tube airway vs endotracheal tube in prehospital cardiopulmonary arrest. Chest1986;90:90–96.
60.
MeislinHW. The esophageal obturator airway: a study of respiratory effectiveness. Ann Emerg Med1980;9:54–59.
61.
SchoffermanJ, OillP, LewisAJ. The esophageal obturator airway—a clinical evaluation. Chest1976;69:67–71.
62.
NiemannJT, RosboroughJP, MyersR, ScarberryEN. The pharyngeotracheal lumen airway: preliminary investigation of a new adjunct. Ann Emerg Med1984;13:591–596.
63.
McCabeCJ, BrowneBJ. Esophageal obturator airway, ET tube, and pharyngeal-tracheal lumen airway. Am J Emerg Med1986;4:64–71.
64.
FrassM, FrenzerR, ZdrahalF, HoflehnerG, PorgesP, LacknerF.The esophageal tracheal Combitube: preliminary results with a new airway for CPR. Ann Emerg Med1987;16:768–772.
65.
LosakJD, HennesH, GlaeserP, HendleyG, NelsonDB. Prehospital care of the pulseless, nonbreathing pediatric patient. Am J Emerg Med1987;5:370–374.
SmithJP, BodaiBI, AubourgR, WardRE. A field evaluation of the esophageal obturator airway. J Trauma1983;23:317–321.
68.
AuerbachPS, GeehrEC. Inadequate oxygenation and ventilation using the esophageal gastric tube airway in the prehospital setting. JAMA1983;250:3067–3071.
69.
GeehrEC, BogetzMS, AuerbachPS. Pre-hospital tracheal intubation versus esophageal gastric tube use: a prospective study. Am J Emerg Med1985;3:381–385.
70.
HessD, GoffG.The effects of two-hand versus one-hand ventilation on volumes delivered during bag-valve ventilation at various resistances and compliances. Respir Care1987;32:1025–1028.
71.
Van HooserDT, KewatzT, LenzK.Altitude and temperature effects on bag-mask resuscitator performance (abstract). Respir Care1991;36:1293.
72.
AugustineJA, SeidelDR, McCabeJB. Ventilation performance using a self-inflating anesthesia bag: effect of operator characteristics. Am J Emerg Med1987;5:267–270.
73.
HessD, GoffG, JohnsonK.The effect of hand size, resuscitator brand, and use of two hands on volumes delivered during adult bag-valve ventilation. Respir Care1989;34:805–810.
74.
TerndrupTE, CherryRA, McCabeJB. Comparison of ventilation performance: standard resuscitation bag and the resuscitation bag controller. J Emerg Med1990;8:121–125.
75.
PowersWE. Evaluation of a training method that uses volumetric feedback with bag-valve-mask ventilation techniques (abstract). Respir Care1988;33:942–943.
76.
FinerNN, BarringtonKJ, Al-FadleyF, PetersKL. Limitations of self-inflating resuscitators. Pediatrics1986;77(3):417–420.
77.
BarnesT.Evaluation of four disposable pediatric manual resuscitators (abstract). Respir Care1989;34:1059.
78.
KauffmanGW, HessDR. Modification of the infant Laerdal resuscitation bag to monitor airway pressure. Crit Care Med1982;10:112–113.
79.
GoldsteinB, CatlinEA, VetereJM, ArguinLJ. The role of in-line manometers in minimizing peak and mean airway pressure during the hand-regulated ventilation of newborn infants. Respir Care1989;34:23–27.
80.
BizzleTL, KotasRV. Positive pressure hand ventilation: potential errors in estimating inflation pressures. Pediatrics1983;72:122–125.
MillerRD, HamiltonWK. Pneumothorax during infant resuscitation. JAMA1969;210:1090–1091.
84.
ChernickV.Lung rupture in the newborn infant. Respir Care1986;31:628–635.
85.
PalmeC, NystromB, TunellR.An evaluation of the efficiency of face masks in the resuscitation of newborn infants. Lancet1985;1:207–210.
86.
FieldD, MilnerAD, HopkinIE. Efficacy of manual resuscitators at birth. Arch Dis Child1986;61:300–302.
87.
ColeAF, RolbinSH, HewEM, PynnS.An improved ventilator system for delivery-room management of the newborn. Anesthesiology1979;51:356–358.
88.
VyasH.Facemask resuscitation of the newborn. Indian J Pediatr1987;54:618–620.
89.
LazzaraA.Resuscitation of the newborn. Postgrad Med1977;61:203–210.
90.
MilnerAD, VyasH, HopkinIE. Efficacy of facemask resuscitation at birth. Br Med J1984;289:1563–1565.
91.
VyasH, MilnerAD, HopkinIE, BoonAW. Physiologic responses to prolonged and slow-rise inflation in the resuscitation of the asphyxiated newborn infant. J Pediatr1981;99:635–639.
92.
MilnerAD, SaundersRA. Pressure and volume changes during the first breath of human neonates. Arch Dis Child1977;52:918–924.
93.
HullD.Lung expansion and ventilation during resuscitation of asphyxiated newborn infants. J Pediatr1969;75:47–58.
94.
BoonAW, MilnerAD, HopkinIE. Lung expansion, tidal volume, and formation of the functional residual capacity during resuscitation of asphyxiated neonates. J Pediatr1979;95:1031–1036.
95.
OkkenA, RubinIL, MartinRJ. Intermittent bag ventilation of preterm infants on continuous positive airway pressure: the effect on transcutaneous PO2. Pediatrics1978;93:279–282.
96.
JostenK.Der Laerdal-Beutelbeatmer fur Neugeborene und Kleinkinder. Prakt Anasth1977;12:145–147.
97.
BaumanJ.Two new devices improve patient care (abstract). J Clin Monit1991;7:104–106.
98.
BarnesTA. Evaluation of the Bauman and BagEasy adult manual resuscitators (abstract). Respir Care1991;36:1289.
99.
WatsonM, BarnesT, SmithE, WallaceL.Evaluation of eight pediatric and neonatal manual resuscitators (abstract). Respir Care1984;29:1039.
100.
WatsonM, BarnesT.Evaluation of ten adult manual resuscitators (abstract). Respir Care1983;28:1327.
101.
WatsonM, BarnesT.A reliable test methodology for evaluating manual resuscitators (abstract). Respir Care1982;27:1238–1240.
102.
KlickJ, BushnellL, BancroftM.Barotrauma: a potential hazard of manual resuscitators. Anesthesiology1978;49:363–365.
103.
KravathRE, SchonbergSK. Tension-pneumothorax hazard. N Engl J Med1968;278(25):1403.
104.
WatsonM, SchenaJA, ThompsonJE, BarnesTA. Evaluation of five pediatric manual resuscitators (abstract). 1988;33:943.
105.
EllingsenI, SydnesG, HaugeJ, ZwartA, LiestolK, NicolaysenG.CO2 sensitivity in humans breathing 1 or 2% CO2 in air. Acta Physiol Scand1987;129:195–202.
106.
EllingsenI, LiestolK, SydnesG, HaugeJ, ZwartA, NicolaysenG.Arterial PCO2 and lung ventilation in man exposed to 1-5% CO2 in the inspired gas. Acta Physiol Scand1987;129:269–276.
107.
ElamJO, BrownES, ElderJDJr. Artificial respiration by mouth-to-mask method. N Engl J Med1954;250:749–754.
108.
Holy Bible, II Kings, chapter 4, verse 34.
109.
MackenzieP.Treatment of asphyxia in newborn by lung inflator for indirect mouth-to-mouth breathing. Am J Obstet Gynecol1933;25:918.
SafarP.Pocket mask for emergency artificial ventilation and oxygen inhalation. Crit Care Med1974;2:273–276.
114.
Standards and guidelines for cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) and emergency cardiac care (ECC). JAMA1980;244:453–509.
115.
HessD, NessC, OppelA, RhoadsK.Evaluation of mouth-to-mask devices. Respir Care1989;34:191–195.
116.
BossaertL, Van HoeyweghenR.Evaluation of cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) techniques. Resuscitation1989;17(Suppl):S99–S109.
117.
SivaneswaranN, LawrenceP, HartA, NgAY. A new resuscitation mask. Anaesth Intensive Care1984;12:274–275.
118.
DurfeyJQ. A new non-rebreathing valve system and squeeze bag resuscitator. Aerospace Med1966;37:515–517.
119.
JohnstonR, MachinJR, MacNeilA.A new resuscitation apparatus providing 70% oxygen. Br Med J1986;292:1711–1712.
120.
HessD, KukulaC.Evaluation of backleak through mouth-to-mask ventilation devices (abstract). Respir Care1989;34:1013.
121.
LoehningRW, DavisG, SafarP.Rebreathing with "nonrebreathing valves". Anesthesiology1964;25:854–856.
122.
JohannigmanJA, BransonRD, DavisK, HurstJM. Techniques of emergency ventilation: a model to evaluate tidal volume, airway pressure, and gastric insufflation. J Trauma1991;31:93–98.
123.
Standards and guidelines for cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) and emergency cardiac care (ECC). JAMA1974;227(Suppl):833–868.
124.
RubenA, RubenH.Artificial ventilation—flow of water from the lung and the stomach. Lancet1962;1:780–781.
125.
RubenA, RubenH.The immediate treatment of respiratory failure. Br J Anaesth1964;36:542–549.
126.
SellickBA. Cricoid pressure to control regurgitation of stomach contents during induction of anaesthesia. Lancet1961;2:404.
127.
MelkerRJ. Recommendations for ventilation during cardiopulmonary resuscitation: time for change. Crit Care Med1985;13:882–883.
128.
MelkerRJ. Asynchronous and other alternative methods of ventilation during CPR. Ann Emerg Med1984;13(2):758–761.
129.
HarrisLC, KirmliB, SafarP.Ventilation—cardiac compression rates and ratios in cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Anesthesiology1967;28:806–813.
130.
ChandraN, RudikoffM, WeisfeldtML. Simultaneous chest compressions and ventilation at high airway pressure during cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Lancet1980;1:175–178.
131.
OrnatoJP, HallaganLF, McMahanSB, RostafinskiAG. Attitudes of BCLS instructors about mouth-to-mouth resuscitation during the AIDS epidemic. Ann Emerg Med1990;19:151–156.
132.
PaneGA, SalnessKA. A survey of participants in a mass CPR training course. Ann Emerg Med1987;16:1112–1116.
133.
LinkRN, FeingoldAR, CharapMH, FreemanK, ShelovSP. Concerns of medical and pediatric house officers about acquiring AIDS from their patients. Am J Public Health1988;78:455–459.
134.
American Heart Association. Supplemental guidelines: risk of infection during CPR training and rescue. JAMA1989;262:2714–2715. (Reprinted in Respir Care 1990;35:114–115).
135.
FluckRR, SorbelloJG. Mouth-to-mouth resuscitation by lay rescuers—should they or shouldn't they? (point of view). Respir Care1990;35:831–832.
136.
DurbinCG. Mouth-to-mask resuscitation by lay rescuers—will they or won't they? (point of view). Respir Care1990;35:832–834.
137.
LifsonAR. Do alternative modes for transmission of human immunodeficiency virus exist?JAMA1988;259:1353–1356.
138.
FriedlandGH, KleinRS. Transmission of the human immunodeficiency virus. N Engl J Med1987;317:1125–1136.
139.
GroopmanJE, SalahuddinSZ, SarngadharanMG, MarkhamPD, GondaM, SliskiA, . HTLV-III virus in saliva of people with AIDS-related complex and healthy homosexual men at risk for AIDS. Science1984;226:447–449.
140.
HoDD, ByingtonRE, SchooleyRT, FlynnT, RotaTR, HirschMS. Infrequency of isolation of HTLV-III virus from saliva in AIDS (letter). N Engl J Med1985;313:1606.
GerberdingJL, Bryant-LeBlancCE, NelsonK, MossAR, OsmondD, ChambersHF, . Risk of transmitting the human immunodeficiency virus, cytomegalovirus and hepatitis B virus to health care workers exposed to patients with AIDS-related conditions. J Infect Dis1987;156:1–8.
143.
SaviteerSM, WhiteGC, CohenMS. HTLV III exposure during cardiopulmonary resuscitation. N Engl J Med1985;313:1606–1607.
144.
Centers for Disease Control. Recommendations for prevention of HIV transmission in health-care settings. MMWR1987;36(Suppl):3S–18S.
145.
Centers for Disease Control. Guidelines for prevention of transmission of human immunodeficiency virus and hepatitis B virus, and other blood borne pathogens in health-care settings. MMWR1988;37:377–382, 387–388.
146.
OsbornHH, KayenD, HorneH, BrayW.Excess ventilation with oxygen-powered resuscitators. Am J Emerg Med1984;2:408–413.
147.
ECRI. Hazard: demand valve resuscitators. Health Devices1976;5:145–146.
148.
PradisIL, CaldwellEJ. Traumatic pneumocephalus: a hazard of resuscitators. J Trauma1979;19:61–63.
149.
ECRI. Evaluation: oxygen-powered resuscitators. Health Devices1974;3:207–221.
150.
ECRI. Evaluation: gas-powered resuscitators. Health Devices1978;8:24–38.
151.
FasiTH, LucasBG. An evaluation of some mechanical resuscitators for use in the ambulance service. Ann R Coll Surg Engl1980;62:291–293.