Disorders of Respiratory Control in Infants

Hiatt IM , Hegyi I , Indyk L , Dangman BC , James LS . Continuous monitoring of PO₂ during apnea of prematurity. J Pediatr 1988;98:288–291.

Perlman JM , Volpe JJ . Episodes of apnea and bradycardia in the preterm newborn: Impact on the cerebral circulation. Pediatrics 1985;76:333–338.

Henderson-Smart DJ . The effect of gestational age on the incidence and duration of recurrent apnea in newborn babies. Aust Paediatr J 1981;17:273–276.

Brazy JE , Kinney HC , Oakes WJ . Central nervous system structural lesions causing apnea at birth. J Pediatr 1987;111:163–175.

von Euler C. On the central pattern generator for the basic breathing rhythmicity. J Appl Physiol 1983;55:1647–1659.

Henderson-Smart W , Pettigrew AG , Campbell W. Clinical apnea and brain-stem neural function in preterm infants. N Engl J Med 1983;308:353–357.

Waggener TB , Stark AR , Cohlan BA , Frantz ID . Apnea duration is related to ventilatory oscillation characteristics in newborn infants. J Appl Physiol 1984;57:536–544.

Lagercrantz H. Neuromodulators and respiratory control in the infant. Clin Perinatol 1987;14:683–695.

Eichenwald EC , Stark AR . Respiratory motor output: Effect of state and maturation in early life. In: Haddad GG , Farber JP , eds. Developmental neurobiology of breathing. New York: Marcel Dekker (in press).

Gabriel M , Albani M , Schulte FJ . Apneic spells and sleep states in preterm infants. Pediatrics 1976;57:142–147.

Martin RJ , Miller MJ , Carlo WA . Pathogenesis of apnea in preterm infants. J Pediatr 1986;109:733–741.

Muller N , Gulston C , Cade D , et al. Diaphragmatic muscle fatigue in the newborn. J Appl Physiol 1979;46:688–695.

Heldt GP , McIlroy MB . Distortion of chest wall and work of diaphragm in preterm infants. J Appl Physiol 1987;62:164–169.

Stark AR , Cohlan BA , Waggener TB , Frantz ID , Kosch PC . Regulation of end-expiratory lung volume during sleep in premature infants. J Appl Physiol 1987;62:1117–1123.

Gerhardt T , Bancalari E. Maturational changes of reflexes influencing respiratory timing in newborns. J Appl Physiol 1981;50:1282–1285.

Knill R , Bryan AC . An intercostal-phrenic inhibitory reflex in human newborn infants. J Appl Physiol 1976;40:352–356.

Fox RE , Kosch PC , Feldman HA , Stark AR . Control of inspiratory duration in premature infants. J Appl Physiol 1988;64:2597–2604.

Gerhardt T , Bancalari E. Apnea of prematurity: II. Respiratory reflexes. Pediatrics 1984;74:63–66.

Dransfield DA , Spitzer AR , Fox WW . Episodic airway obstruction in premature infants. Arch Dis Child 1983;137:441–443.

Howell RG , Leszczynski LE , Kosch PC , Stark AR . Uncoupling of laryngeal abduction and inspiratory effort in premature infants (abstract). Pediatr Res 1988;23:510A.

Scott SC , Inman JDG , Moss IR . Ontogeny of sleep/wake and cardiorespiratory behavior in unanesthetized piglets. Respir Physiol 1990;80:83–102.

Mathew OP , Roberts JL , Thach BT . Pharyngeal airway obstruction in preterm infants during mixed and obstructive apnea. J Pediatr 1982;100:964–968.

Thach BT , Stark AR . Spontaneous neck flexion and airway obstruction during apneic spells in preterm infants. J Pediatr 1979;94:275–281.

Carlo WA , Miller MJ , Martin RJ . Differential response of respiratory muscles to airway occlusion in infants. J Appl Physiol 1985;59:847–852.

Gauda EB , Miller MJ , Carlo WA , Difiore JM , Johnsen DC , Martin RJ . Genioglossus response to airway occlusion in apneic versus non-apneic infants. Pediatr Res 1987;22:683–687.

Harned HS , Myracle J , Ferreiro J. Respiratory suppression and swallowing from introduction of fluids into the laryngeal region of the lamb. Pediatr Res 1978;12:1003–1009.

Pickens DL , Scheffer G , Thach BT . Prolonged apnea associated with upper airway protective reflexes in apnea of prematurity. Am Rev Respir Dis 1988;137:113–118.

Martin RJ , Carlo WA , Robertson SS , Day WR , Bruce EN . Biphasic response of respiratory frequency to hypercapnia in preterm infants. Pediatr Res 1985;19:791–796.

Frantz ID , Adler SM , Thach BT , Taeusch HW . Maturational effects on respiratory responses to carbon dioxide in premature infants. J Appl Physiol 1976;41:41–45.

Gerhardt T , Bancalari E. Apnea of prematurity: I. Lung function and regulation of breathing. Pediatrics 1984;74:58–62.

Rigatto H , Brady JP , de la Torre-Verduzco R. Chemoreceptor reflexes in premature infants: I. The effect of gestational and postnatal age on the ventilatory response to inhalation of 100% and 5% oxygen. Pediatrics 1975;55:604–613.

Sankaran K , Wiebe H , Seshia MMK , Boychuck RB , Cates D , Rigatto H. Immediate and late ventilatory response to high and low O2 in preterm infants and adult subjects. Pediatr Res 1979;13:875–878.

Stark AR . Apnea. In: Cloherty JP , Stark AR , eds. Manual of neonatal care. Boston: Little, Brown & Co, 1991:222–226.

Warburton D , Stark AR , Taeusch HW . Apnea monitor failure in infants with upper airway obstruction. Pediatrics 1977;60:742–744.

Daily W Jr , Klaus M , Meyer HB . Apnea in premature infants: Monitoring, incidence, heart rate changes, and an effect of environmental temperature. Pediatrics 1969;43:510–518.

Korner AF , Ruppel EM , Rho JM . Effect of water beds on the sleep and motility of theophylline-treated preterm infants. Pediatrics 1982;70:864–869.

Kattwinkel J , Nearman HS , Fanaroff AA , Katona PG , Klaus MH . Apnea of prematurity. J Pediatr 1975;86:588–592.

Miller MJ , Carlo WA , Martin RJ . Continuous positive airway pressure selectively reduces obstructive apnea in preterm infants. J Pediatr 1985;106:91–94.

Shannon DC , Gotay F , Stein IM , Rogers MC , Todres ID , Moylan FM . Prevention of apnea and bradycardia in low-birth-weight infants. Pediatrics 1975;55:589–594.

Aranda JV , Gorman W , Bergsteinson H , Gunn T. Efficacy of caffeine in treatment of apnea in the low-birth-weight infant. J Pediatr 1977;90:467–472.

Gerhardt T , McCarthy J , Bancalari E. Effect of aminophylline on respiratory center and reflex activity in premature infants with apnea. Pediatr Res 1983;17:188–191.

Davi MJ , Sankaran K , Simons KJ , Simons FE , Seshia MM , Rigatto H. Physiologic changes induced by theophylline in the treatment of apnea in premature infants. J Pediatr 1978;92:91–95.

Lagercrantz H , Yamamoto Y , Fredholm BB , Prabhakar NR , von Euler C. Adenosine analogues depress ventilation in rabbit neonates. Theophylline stimulation of respiration via adenosine receptors? Pediatr Res 1984;18:387–390.

Aubier M , DeTroyer A , Sampson M , Macklem PT , Roussos C. Aminophylline improves diaphragmatic contractility. N Engl J Med 1981;305:249–252.

Gerhardt T , McCarthy J , Bancalari E. Effect of aminophylline on respiratory center activity and metabolic rate in premature infants with idiopathic apnea. Pediatrics 1979;63:537–542.

Barrington KJ , Finer NN , Peters KL , Barton J. Physiologic effects of doxapram in idiopathic apnea of prematurity. J Pediatr 1986;108:125–129.

Barrington KJ , Finer NN , Torok-Both G , Jamali F , Coutts RT . Dose-response relationship of doxapram in the therapy for refractory idiopathic apnea of prematurity. Pediatrics 1987;80:79–84.

Joshi A , Gerhardt T , Shandloff P , Bancalari E. Blood transfusion effect on the respiratory pattern of preterm infants. Pediatrics 1987;80:79–84.

DeMaio JG , Harris MC , Deuber C , Spitzer AR . Effect of blood transfusion on apnea frequency in growing premature infants. J Pediatr 1989;114:1039–1041.

Keyes WG , Donohue PK , Spivale JL , Jones MD , Oski FA . Assessing the need for transfusion of premature infants and role of hematocrit, clinical signs, and erythropoietin level. Pediatrics 1989;84:412–417.

Southall DP , Richards JM , Rhoden KJ , et al. Prolonged apnea and cardiac arrhythmias in infants discharged from neonatal intensive care units: Failure to predict an increased risk for sudden infant death syndrome. Pediatrics 1982;70:844–851.

Glotzbach SF , Baldwin RB , Lederer BA , Tansey PA , Ariagno RL . Periodic breathing in preterm infants: Incidence and characteristics. Pediatrics 1989;84:785–792.

Consensus Statement. National Institutes of Health consensus development conference on infantile apnea and home monitoring, September 29 to October 1, 1986. Pediatrics 1987;79:292–299.