Hazing and peer sexual abuse in sport are a critical issue, brought into public scrutiny with increasing frequency due to various forms of media, resulting in major causes of numerous avoidable mental health issues, and in some cases, even death. While the exact incidence of these activities is extremely difficult to quantify, trends indicate that the problem is very likely underreported.
Evidence Acquisition:
PubMed, Google, various legal journals/statutes, books on hazing and peer abuse in sport, and newspaper periodicals/editorials were all searched. Sources range in date from 1968 through 2018.
Study Design:
Clinical review.
Level of Evidence:
Level 5.
Results:
Hazing and peer sexual abuse are complex issues that have the potential to lead to physical, emotional, and mental harm. The underlying causes of hazing are complex but rooted in maintaining a hierarchical structure within the team unit. By implementing various changes and strategies, coaches and team administration can mitigate the risks of these behaviors.
Conclusion:
Hazing and peer sexual abuse in sport are avoidable and must be eliminated to maximize the numerous physical and psychosocial benefits attainable by participating in team athletics.
AndersonEMccormackMLeeH.Male team sport hazing initiations in a culture of decreasing homohysteria. J Adolesc Res. 2012;27:427-448.
5.
BanyardVLPlanteEGMoynihanMM.Bystander education: bringing a broader community perspective to sexual violence prevention. J Community Psychol. 2004;32:61-79.
6.
BooneEMLeadbeaterBJ.Game on: diminishing risks for depressive symptoms in early adolescence through positive involvement in team sports. J Res Adolesc. 2006;16:79-90.
7.
BrackenridgeCHKirbyS.Playing safe: assessing the risk of sexual abuse to elite child athletes. Int Rev Sociol Sport. 1997;32:407-418.
8.
BrackenridgeCHLindsayITelferH.Sexual Abuse Risk in Sport: Testing the ‘Stage of Imminent Achievement’ Hypothesis. London, England: Brunel University; 2009.
9.
CenseMBrackenridgeCH.Temporal and developmental risk factors for sexual harassment and abuse in sport. Eur Phys Educ Rev. 2001;7:61-79.
10.
DarleyJMLatanéB.Bystander intervention in emergencies: diffusion of responsibility. J Pers Soc Psychol. 1968;8:377-383.
11.
DiamondABCallahanSTChainKFSolomonGS.Qualitative review of hazing in collegiate and school sports: consequences from a lack of culture, knowledge and responsiveness. Br J Sports Med. 2016;50:149-153.
12.
DonaldsonM.What is hegemonic masculinity?Theory Soc. 1993;22:643-657.
13.
DunnALTrivediMHKampertJBClarkCGChamblissHO.Exercise treatment for depression: efficacy and dose response. Am J Prev Med. 2005;28:1-8.
14.
EimeRMYoungJAHarveyJTCharityMJPayneWR.A systematic review of the psychological and social benefits of participation in sport for children and adolescents: informing development of a conceptual model of health through sport. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 2013;10:98.
15.
FastingKBrackenridgeCHSundgot-BorgenJ.Females, Elite Sports and Sexual Harassment (The Norwegian Women Project). Oslo, Norway: Norwegian Olympic Committee; 2000.
16.
FieldsSKCollinsCLComstockRD.Violence in youth sports: hazing, brawling and foul play. Br J Sports Med. 2010;44:32-37.
17.
FindlayLCCoplanRJ.Come out and play: shyness in childhood and the benefits of organized sports participation. Can J Behav Sci. 2008;40:153-161.
18.
FreetlyAHKaneEW.Men’s and women’s perceptions of non-consensual sexual intercourse. Sex Roles. 1995;33:785-802.
19.
GershelJCKatz-SidlowRJSmallEZandiehS.Hazing of suburban middle school and high school athletes. J Adolesc Health. 2003;32:333-335.
GurnhamD.Victim-blame as a symptom of rape myth acceptance? Another look at how young people in England understand sexual consent. Legal Stud. 2016;36:258-278.
HillbergTHamilton-GiachritsisCDixonL.Review of meta-analyses on the association between child sexual abuse and adult mental health difficulties: a systematic approach. Trauma Violence Abuse. 2011;12:38-49.
25.
HooverJMilnerC.Are hazing and bullying related to love and belongingness?Reclaim Children Youth. 1998;7:138-141.
26.
HooverNC.National Survey: Initiation Rites and Athletics for NCAA Sports Teams. Alfred, NY: Alfred University; 1999.
27.
HooverNCPollardNJ.Initiation Rites in American High Schools: A National Survey. Alfred, NY: Alfred University; 2000.
28.
JanssenILeblancAG.Systematic review of the health benefits of physical activity and fitness in school-aged children and youth. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 2010;7:40.
29.
JohnsonJ.Through the liminal: a comparative analysis of communitas and rites of passage in sport hazing and initiations. Can J Sociol. 2011;36:199-227.
LeahyTPrettyGTenenbaumG.Perpetrator methodology as a predictor of traumatic symptomatology in adult survivors of childhood sexual abuse. J Interpers Violence. 2004;19:521-540.
35.
LenskyjHJ.What’s Sex Got to Do With It? Analysing the Sex and Violence Agenda in Sport Hazing Practices. Toronto, Ontario, Canada: Canadian Scholars’ Press; 2004.
MountjoyMBrackenridgeCArringtonMet al. International Olympic Committee consensus statement: harassment and abuse (non-accidental violence) in sport. Br J Sports Med. 2016;50:1019-1029.
43.
National Federation of State High School Associations. Sexual Harassment and Hazing: Your Actions Make a Difference!. Indianapolis, IN: National Federation of State High School Associations; 2006.
44.
NewmanBMLohmanBJNewmanPR.Peer group membership and a sense of belonging: their relationship to adolescent behavior problems. Adolescence. 2007;42:241-263.
RazziV.Hazing horror: lawsuits allege female athletes at Catholic university forced to simulate sex acts. The College Fix. June28, 2015. https://www.thecollegefix.com/post/23120/. Accessed September 21, 2017.
StirlingAEBridgesEJCruzELMountjoyM.Canadian Academy of Sport and Exercise Medicine position paper: abuse, harassment, and bullying in sport. Clin J Sports Med. 2011;21:385-391.
54.
StuartSP.Warriors, machismo, and jockstraps: sexually exploitative athletic hazing and Title IX in the public school locker room. West N Engl Law Rev. 2013;35:377.
Van RaalteJLCorneliusAELinderDEBrewerBW.The relationship between hazing and team cohesion. J Sport Behav. 2007;30:491-507.
58.
WaldronJJKowalskiCL.Crossing the line: rites of passage, team aspects, and ambiguity of hazing. Res Q Exerc Sport. 2009;80:291-302.
59.
WaldronJJLynnQKraneV.Duct tape, icy hot & paddles: narratives of initiation onto US male sport teams. Sport Educ Soc. 2011;16:111-125.
60.
WilfertM.Building New Traditions: Hazing Prevention in College Athletics. Indianapolis, IN: National Collegiate Athletic Association; 2007.
61.
ZierlerSFeingoldLLauferDVelentgasPKantrowitz-GordonIMayerK.Adult survivors of childhood sexual abuse and subsequent risk of HIV infection. Am J Public Health. 1991;81:572-575.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
