Forest Patch Structures and Bird Species Composition of a Lowland Riverine Coastal Forest in Kenya

Abstract

French

The Lower Tana River forests in coastal Kenya represent lowland evergreen riverine tropical forest types that are rare in Kenya and probably in Africa. We assessed the bird species composition and forest conditions of 14 forest patches within the Lower Tana River valley each February and October between 1999 and 2004. Vegetation structures showed variations of different strengths in individual forest patches, but only canopy height differed significantly across sites. Overall, canopy cover was correlated directly with canopy height but inversely with bare ground. A total of 155 bird species of 43 families comprising 9 forest specialists (FF), 27 forest generalists (F), 42 forest visitors (f) and 77 species associated with savannah/woodland ecosystems were recorded from the 14 forest patches. The overall bird species composition did not differ significantly across these forest patches, but similarities in species composition of different strengths were evident across the sites.

Keywords

Lower Tana River forests avian diversity avian species richness vegetation structure Kenya

Introduction

The conservation of forests is a major challenge in developing countries because of high dependence on forest resources for livelihood [1]. Given the rapid population growth and ensuing increased demands for forest resources, this trend is likely to continue in tropical regions [2, 3]. Birds have often been used as “bio-indicators” of forest conditions [4, 5]. Many forest-dependent birds have been shown to be detrimentally affected by forest loss and degradation, and cases of species extinction have been reported when forest fragments are either too small or too degraded to support viable populations [6, 7, 8]. Although certain degraded forests have been shown to sustain subsets of primary forest avifauna, tropical birds are generally less resilient to habitat disturbance due to their high habitat specificity compared to their temperate counterparts [9, 10]. Due to this characteristic, there is need for considerable efforts to conserve the remaining natural and intact tropical forests to reduce threats to forest-dependent species.

A number of studies have examined how forest loss and fragmentation affect birds in Africa [2, 4, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17]. The Lower Tana River forests in coastal Kenya are unique in many ways. They represent lowland evergreen riverine tropical forest types which are rare in Kenya and probably in Africa, and whose importance for biodiversity has long been recognized [18, 19]. Over the years, these forests have experienced considerable demographic pressures. Generally, their use has been unsustainable, with burning, pole cutting, and felling of large trees for building canoes being of particular concern [18]. In addition, the forests are surrounded by agricultural and grazing lands—a trend toward forest conversion that has proceeded at an alarming rate in recent years [19]. Given the current human growth trends in Kenya's Lower Tana River area, the demand for forest products will increase tremendously in the future [18].

Although the Lower Tana River forests are listed among the key forests for bird conservation in Africa and as an Important Bird Area (IBA) in Kenya [20], their avifauna is poorly known. Apart from general surveys in the 1970s [21], there is little ornithological information. As a step toward a better understanding of the avifauna of the Lower Tana River forests, we carried out focused ornithological surveys of the forest patches located within the Tana River Primate National Reserve. Although the forest patches within the Reserve are legally protected, they continue to experience human pressures like other patches located outside the Reserve.

In this paper we focused on assessment of forest structures and bird species composition, and based our analyses on 14 forest patches within the Reserve with the view of assessing their conservation values for birds.

Methods

Study area

The Tana River National Primate Reserve (1°55'S, 40°5'E) covers an area of about 171 km² within the Lower Tana River forest system [18]. The Reserve (Fig. 1) was gazetted in 1976 to protect the riverine forests and two highly endangered primates; the Tana River red colobus Colobus badius rufomitratus and Tana River mangabey Cercocebus galeritus galeritus [18, 22]. Annual precipitation is about 250mm/year, and this increases downstream to about 1000mm/year over the Tana River Delta [23]. The forests within the Reserve occur in patches in the riparian zone extending for about 16 km along the meandering course of the Tana River. Of the 71 forest patches within the Lower Tana River forest system, 23 covering about 1527 ha fall within the Reserve [19]. We focused on 14 of these patches in our surveys (Table 1). Although these patches show fairly continuous stands, their separation distances are evident from ground observations. Most patches have separation distances of approximately 100 m consisting of regenerating vegetation following clearance by surrounding communities.

The Reserve's flora is quite diverse and comprises a complex mix of pan-African species of western and central African rainforest species and eastern and coastal forest endemic species, with at least 10 rare woody plant species [24]. Characteristic trees across the patches include Ficus spp., Phoenix reclinata, Acacia robusta, Diospyros mespiliformis [25]. These species form a mosaic of habitats comprising grasslands, bushlands, and deciduous woodlands along the banks of the Tana River.

Fig.1.

The forest patches and surrounding land covers at Tana River Primate National Reserve Lower Tana River forest system, Kenya

Bird surveys

In each of the 14 forest patches, we conducted bird surveys by a combination of mist netting and timed species counts [26]. Ten mist nets (3 × 12 m, 36 mm mesh) were placed haphazardly in the understorey along cleared narrow trails. The nets were placed at intervals of about 30 meters. These surveys were conducted every February and October from 1999 to 2004, coinciding with the dry and wet seasons in the area. Four days of mist netting were conducted in each patch with nets operated between 06:30h and 11:00h (an average of 10 mist-netting hours per patch). Recaptures from mist-netting sessions were excluded from the analyses. Following [27], timed species counts (TSCs) were conducted simultaneously with mist netting, and attempts were made to cover more than 50% of each patch. Every time a bird species was detected, we recorded time, together with an indication of whether the detection was by sight or sound, and if it was within a distance of 25 m and above 3 m from the ground. The distance was chosen since few birds could be detected beyond 30 m because of the density of vegetation. Detected species were scored according to when first recorded (four if in the first 10 minutes, three if in the next 10 minutes, and so on). A total of 12 counting sessions, each lasting 40 minutes (an average of 7−8 hours), was done in each patch.

Forests patch structures surveys

We conducted vegetation surveys to determine structural characteristics of each patch. This involved estimation of habitat complexity following Braun-Blanquet scales of visual estimation of cover [28]. We walked in haphazardly selected directions through the forests and marked 40 points at intervals of 10 m. At each point, canopy height was estimated to the nearest 1 m of the vegetation height range, 4−20 m. Canopy cover was estimated to the nearest 5/10% for the same height range. Shrub density was estimated using a square checkered board of 40 × 40 cm divided into 8times8 cm black and white squares. Researchers counted the number of squares visible at a vegetation height range of 1−2 m within a fixed radius of 5 m north and south of the observer standing at each of the 40 points. This was a modification of the half-sight measurement technique [see 11]. Two plots measuring 1times1 m were also established at each point and the percentage of herb, litter cover, and open areas was estimated visually. Other vegetation variables such as plant species present were also recorded.

Table 1.

Bird species richness and the forest structural features in 14 patches in the Tana River Primate National Reserve, Kenya.

		Patch structure characteristics ((Mean $pL SD)
Forest patches	Species Richness	Canopy Height (m)	% Canopy Cover	% Shrub Density	% Litter Cover	% Herb Cover	% Open Area
Wenje East/Central	79	10 ± 7.3	50 ± 27.6	20 ± 6.6	70 ± 21.4	05 ± 10.8	20 ± 19.0
Kipendi	79	05 ± 3.9	60 ± 20.2	20 ± 6.4	65 ± 26.3	15 ± 18.8	15 ± 18.4
Maroni	58	10 ± 21.3	40 ± 27.4	20 ± 3.4	45 ± 37.2	05 ± 11.8	40 ± 35.4
Maroni East	54	20 ± 16.1	50 ± 26.3	20 ± 4.7	55 ± 29.6	15 ± 17.7	30 ± 31.0
Makere	46	20 ± 5.7	60 ± 14.6	25 ± 4.4	75 ± 19.2	10 ± 14.8	10 ± 13.5
Makere East	81	10 ± 6.5	50 ± 22.8	20 ± 7.9	65 ± 22.8	15 ± 17.9	15 ± 19.0
Guru North	46	20 ± 14.1	70 ± 21.4	20 ± 7.9	75 ± 25.1	10 ± 17.7	10 ± 19.7
Guru South	53	10 ± 6.8	60 ± 17.9	20 ± 5.6	80 ± 19.2	05 ± 7.9	15 ± 16.1
Mchelelo Complex¹	45	20 ± 11.2	50 ± 32.3	15 ± 9.4	75 ± 23.1	20 ± 21.8	05 ± 11.4
Mchelelo East	71	10 ± 8.9	30 ± 31.1	15 ± 7.9	65 ± 22.9	10 ± 17.9	20 ± 21.2
Sifa East	81	20 ± 12.4	60 ± 26.1	20 ± 5.5	65 ± 22.1	15 ± 20.6	20 ± 20.3
Baomo South	47	30 ± 21.3	70 ± 22.1	15 ± 7.5	70 ± 25.5	15 ± 17.8	10 ± 18.0
Manzini North	33	20 ± 8.9	60 ± 24.1	15 ± 7.3	60 ± 25.1	25 ± 20.4	15 ± 23.2
Mnazini South	38	20 ± 7.8	40 ± 22.8	20 ± 5.5	75 ± 23.4	05 ± 3.6	20 ± 22.5

Statistical analyses

All statistical analyses were done using STATISTICA 7.0 [29]. Vegetation measures over the 40 points were averaged for each forest patch and percentages arcsine-transformed for normality before analysis [30]. A two-way analysis of variance followed by Student Newman-Keuls multiple range tests were used to assess structural differences among the 14 forest patches. Standard stepwise multiple regression analyses were used to assess the relationships between the vegetation variables across sites and how they were correlated. The number of bird species recorded from each patch through mist-netting and timed species counts was compiled and forest bird categories defined following Bennun et al. [31]: “FF species” (forest specialists) are true forest birds, characteristic of the interior of the undisturbed forest; “F species” (forest generalists) may occur in undisturbed forest but are also regularly found in forest strips, edges and gaps; “f species” (forest visitors) are birds which are often recorded in forests but are not dependent upon it; “s species” are birds associated with savannah/woodlands areas and are not dependent on forests. We tested for statistical differences in overall species richness and of individual forest bird categories across the 14 patches using ANOVA [32]. The patches (most separated by approximate distances of about 100m) were treated as independent sampling units. Similarities in species composition between each pair of forests were assessed using Jaccard's similarity index of range 0 (dissimilar) to 1 (identical) [23]: S _j = α/α+β+δ; where α = joint occurrence species in patch A and B; β = number of species in patch B but not in A; δ = number of species in patch A but not in B. Patches with S _j > 0.6 indicated higher level of similarity and vice versa. The numbers of individual understory species ringed per forest were compiled and analysis of variance used to compare ringing totals across patches. The scores of individual canopy/mid-level species detected from the TSCs were averaged over all counts per patch to give simple relative abundance indices that were ranked for each patch. We adopted a two-step procedure to determine how bird species richness was influenced by patch structure variables. First, we evaluated the relationship between overall species richness and patch characteristics using multiple stepwise regression models (forward selection procedure). Second, we investigated the effects of patch characteristics on the presence/absence of individual forest specialist birds (FF) pooled for each patch across the 14 patches.

Table 2.

Pair-wise Jaccard's similarity indices of the bird species composition for the 14 patches in the Tana River Primate National Reserve, Kenya

Forest patches
	WjE	Kpd	Mrn	MrE	Mkr	MkE	GrN	GrS	McC	McE	SfE	BmS	MzN
KpW	0.32
MrW	0.24	0.51
MrE	0.34	0.4	0.36
MkW	0.29	0.26	0.20	0.3
MkE	0.74^*	0.32	0.27	0.29	0.32
GrN	0.26	0.22	0.19	0.28	0.55	0.3
GrS	0.30	0.22	0.19	0.35	0.58	0.33	0.61^*
McC^a	0.31	0.13	0.15	0.23	0.35	0.29	0.32	0.39
McE	0.68^*	0.32	0.29	0.34	0.37	0.67^*	0.38	0.34	0.33
SfE	0.65^*	0.34	0.28	0.34	0.38	0.65^*	0.36	0.38	0.30	0.74^*
BmS	0.35	0.29	0.32	0.43	0.32	0.32	0.29	0.3	0.25	0.32	0.35
MzN	0.18	0.13	0.12	0.15	0.31	0.18	0.30	0.4	0.52	0.19	0.22	0.17
MzS	0.28	0.13	0.17	0.25	0.28	0.27	0.33	0.41	0.6	0.31	0.31	0.28	0.55

WjE, Wenje East/Central; Kpd, Kipendi; Mrn, Maroni; MrE, Maroni East; Mkr, Makere; MkE, Makere East; GrN, Guru North; GrS, Guru South; McC, Mchelelo Complex; McE, Mchelelo East; SfE, Sifa East; BmS, Baomo South; MzN, Manzini North; MzS, Mnazini South. Highly similar patches (S_j > 0.6)

Results

Bird species composition

A total of 155 species of 43 families was recorded from the 14 patches. These comprised 9 species categorized as forest specialists (FF), 27 forest generalists (F), 42 forest visitors (f) and 77 species associated with savannah/woodland ecosystems (see Appendix 1). Makere East (81) and Sifa East (81) had the highest numbers of species. Mnazini North (33) had the fewest species (Table 1). The overall species composition did not differ significantly across the 14 patches (F = 4.01, p = 0.06). Wenje East/Central, Makere East and Sifa East had the highest numbers of forest-specialist birds, with FF of 7, 7 and 8, respectively. Similarities in species composition of different levels among the 14 patches were evident (Table 2). Makere East/Wenje (S_j = 0.74), Sifa East/Mchelelo East (S_j = 0.74) and Mchelelo East/Wenje East/Central (S_j = 0.68) had higher levels of similarities in bird species composition. Among the species categories, only savannah/woodland species differed significantly across sites (F = 7.62, p = 0.02). Differences in other groups across the patches were not significant.

Forty under-storey species comprising 386 individuals were ringed in the 14 patches. Forest specialists (FF) and forest generalists (F) formed the bulk of individuals ringed (Appendix 2). Higher ringing records were from Mchelelo Complex (83) and Maroni East (38). Olive sunbird Nectarinia olivacea (forest specialist), red-capped robin-chat Cossypha natalensis (forest generalist) and Fischer's greenbul Phyllastrephus fischeri (forest specialist) formed the bulk of individual species captured across the patches with 70, 68, and 34 individuals respectively. Tropical boubou Laniarius aethiopicus (forest visitor) ranked highest in relative abundance in most patches (see Appendix 3).

Forest patch structures

Canopy heights differed significantly across the sites (F-test = 8.56, p < 0.01, df = 12). Baomo South had the highest mean canopy height, 30 $pL 21.3 (mean $pL S.D.) of the 14 patches (Table 1). Other vegetation variables showed variations in individual patches, but these did not differ significantly across the patches. Overall, canopy cover was directly correlated with canopy height (Pearson r = 0.56, p = 0.04) but inversely correlated with bare ground (Pearson r = −0.57, p = 0.03). The percentage of bare ground was directly correlated with the percentage of shrub density (Pearson r = 0.64, p = 0.01) but inversely correlated with percentage of litter cover (Pearson r = −0.74, p = 0.002) across the patches.

Fig. 2.

Linear regression analyses for overall species richness and forest-dependent species with the forest patch sizes at the Tana River Primate National Reserve, Kenya.

Forest patch structural features and bird species composition

There was an overall positive relationship between overall bird species richness, forest-dependent bird species with the overall forest patch sizes (Fig. 2). In particular, patch sizes significantly influenced the numbers of forest-dependent birds (p < 0.04). Other bird categories showed associations of different strengths but these were not significant. Individual patch structural features showed that canopy cover played a major role in the species richness and the numbers of forest-dependent species (Fig. 3). Other structural variables showed no significant associations with either species richness or richness of individual forest bird categories.

Figure 3.

Linear regression analyses for overall species richness and forest-dependent species with the percentage canopy cover at the Tana River Primate National Reserve, Kenya

The assessment of the presence/absence of individual forest specialists (FF) based on the vegetation variables of canopy cover, shrub density, and open areas showed that the presence of Fischer's greenbul Phyllastrephus fischeri, black-headed apalis Apalis melanocephala, and olive sunbird Nectarinia olivacea was influenced significantly by a combination of these vegetation variables (Table 3).

Discussion

Our results show that overall species composition did not differ significantly across the 14 patches surveyed, and similarities of different levels among the patches were common. This could suggest that most forest patches still have suitable habitats that ensure availability of food, nesting sites, and protective cover for the species but are still vulnerable to persistent encroachment evident around them. In the long term this could jeopardize the ability to sustain particular bird species, especially forest-dependent bird categories. In addition, results from this study suggest that individual species responded differentially to changes in the forest conditions brought about by increasing changes and encroachment. Generally, the proportion of forest-dependent species and individuals was lower than in many Kenyan forests [33]. This is not surprising, given that these forest patches are surrounded by non-forest habitats indicating forest disturbance. The observed differing distribution with some species occurring in only some patches and not in others could suggest the sensitivity of those species to particular structural changes. This observation may be linked to the requirements of individual bird species.

Table 3.

Logistic regression models for multiple forest structure variables of canopy cover, shrub density, and open areas with the nine forest-dependent species (FF) across the 14 forests fragments of the Tana River Primate National Reserve. Dependent variable (species) = logit of probability of occurrence along a gradient of habitat variables.

		Forest structure variables
Species	Regression Constant B_o	Canopy cover	Shrub density	Open area	Wald χ²	P
African crowned eagle	−127.60	0.10	2.34	0.48	2.18	0.535
Fischer's greenbul	−197.44	6.78	−11.37	6.33	15.13	0.002
East coast akalat	−1.88	0.05	0.11	−0.03	0.19	0.980
Red-tailed ant thrush	−7.03	3.54	−0.88	0.46	3.43	0.330
Black-headed apalis	−5.99	0.96	−2.85	1.25	7.65	0.054
Little yellow flycatcher	0.90	−0.22	0.66	−0.28	3.06	0.383
Blue-mantled crested flycatcher	6.47	0.01	−0.17	−0.10	2.14	0.544
Olive sunbird	−14.92	0.34	−0.79	0.72	7.72	0.049
Green-backed twinspot	−20.40	0.09	0.81	−0.15	3.82	0.282

Species with significant relationships are in boldface. Appendix 1 gives the scientific names for the species.

The vegetation measures suggested that all forests patches were experiencing different levels of human disturbance. Vegetation parameters measured from the various patches indicate much variability, especially in canopy height and cover. Generally, it can be shown that a few forest patches are in better condition than others. Baomo South, Guru North, Sifa East, Makere, Mnazini North, and Mchelelo Complex had characteristics of fairly good habitats judging from their high values of canopy height and percentage canopy cover. These also had a high abundance of forest-dependent species as would be expected. Some patches, such as Kipendi and Maroni, hosted fewer forest-dependent species, but this may not necessarily mean that they have lost their potential conservation importance. As observed elsewhere [33, 34], vegetation data are usually “noisy”, and the occurrence of some species in forests of apparently different habitat conditions may complicate the search for general patterns. However, the relative abundance at which forest-dependent species occurred in the various patches could provide a means to assess the habitat quality of each patch.

Generally loss and fragmentation of natural habitat rank among the most severe threats to biodiversity worldwide, with tropical forests being degraded and destroyed more rapidly due to human activities [35, 36, 37]. For forest-dependent organisms, such habitat changes represent significant threats to ecosystem sustainability, and have direct implications on the quality of habitats on which the forests depend [38, 39]. Ground observations during our study showed that human influences (encroachment, mid-forest farming, fires, and tree cutting) were dominant especially around two patches (Wenje East/Central and Baomo South) that had high densities of human settlements. However, all patches surveyed supported a moderately rich avifauna that is characteristic of coastal forests [18]. But these bird assemblages could be threatened by deforestation and degradation unless urgent conservation measures are undertaken.

The continued forest loss and degradation in the Lower Tana River of coastal Kenya presents a conservation challenge. These forest patches are individually too small to support viable populations of bird species, and there are presumably considerable bird movements between them. The continued reduction in patch sizes will affect the ecological requirements for forest-dependent birds, and create habitats for generalists, and possibly predator species in and around the patches. Some of the bird species recorded during the study, including the southern banded snake eagle Circaetus fasciolatus, Fischer's turaco Tauraco fischeri, and the East Coast akalat Sheppardia gunningi, are listed as globally threatened [20], and could face severe impacts on their long-term survival if conservation action for the forest patches is not fast-tracked accordingly. It was evident that these species are still found in some forest patches in the area. Reduced breeding success of forest-dependent birds is likely as suitable habitats diminish. It is therefore important that a large set of more-or-less interconnected patches be maintained within the Lower Tana River Forests and within the Reserve in particular.

Fig. 4.

Photos of some bird species recorded from the Tana River Primate National Reserve. (a) Lilac-breasted roller Coracias caudate (Photo by: Ornithology Section, National Museums of Kenya); (b) Grey-headed kingfisher Halcyon leucocephala (Photo by: Ornithology Section, National Museums of Kenya); (c) African paradise flycatcher Terpsiphone viridis (Photo by: Ornithology Section, National Museums of Kenya; (d) Narina's trogon Apaloderma narina (Photo by: Ornithology Section, National Museums of Kenya).

Implications for conservation

This study provides baseline information, and supplements the required information necessary for conservation actions using birds as key taxa in the Lower Tana River Forests. Given that bird species vary greatly in their sensitivity to habitat disturbance, it would be more effective to use the numbers of sensitive species, especially forest specialists, rather than total species richness in the evaluation of conservation values of forest patches on the area. This is due to the fact that loss of sensitive species may be masked in the total species richness by invasion of species adapted to relatively disturbed patches. As observed in this study, these could include species associated with the savannah/woodland areas. Particular forest patches had higher forest-dependent species, indicating that some patches still have pristine patches that require adequate protection and conservation measures to avoid further degradation. For example, considerable changes in intact forest and other land covers occurred at the Tana River Primate National Reserve between 1994 and 2004. The total forest proportion decreased from 0.69 to 0.57 over the period with estimated linear annual rate of loss of forest of 22.3 ha (Owino, Unpublished data).

The patches within the Reserve are also a home to the Pokomo people, who farm the river banks. Generally the forest use and biodiversity within including birds is thought to be unsustainable despite the protection status as a reserve. The forest patches are exploited by the local people mainly for fuel wood, timber and traditional medicines. Some of the trees targeted for exploitation could be important to bird species. Unsustainable hunting of birds for subsistence has also been reported in the past, but these have not been adequately documented. However, with the increase in human population within the Reserve and the surrounding areas, there is likelihood that further risks of unsustainable use practices is eminent, and is a factor that can not be ignored.

The protection status of all Lower Tana River forest especially those patches within the Reserve need to be improved. Following the unsuccessful major World Bank GEF-funded project, which began in 1997 and was suspended, the urgency for conservation and protection of the Reserve has become very important. The GEF-funded project aimed at among and a other things the relocation programme of the local people living within the Tana River Primate Reserve to create a better opportunity for enhanced protection of the Reserve. Due to challenges and resistance from the local people to the GEF-Project, there is a need for concerted efforts focusing on habitat monitoring programmes within the Reserve. This should involve working closely with the local people living within the Reserve. Further, it is particularly important to document the effects on birds of selective logging of particular tree species within the Reserve. This would be important in developing guidelines for programs to restore the degraded areas with appropriate tree species that can enhance bird species richness and other fauna in the area.

Acknowledgments

We thank the Tana River Primate National Reserve for financial support of this study and the Kenya Wildlife Service for logistical assistance during the study. We also thank all field assistants who participated in the field data collection.

Appendix 1

Bird species recorded from the 14 forest patches of the Tana River Primate National Reserve. Taxonomy and species order follow the Ornithological Sub-Committee of the East Africa Natural History Society [40]. Species groups follow Bennun et al. [31].

	Forest patches
Families and species	Group	WjE	Kpd	Mrn	MrE	Mkr	MkE	GrN	GrS	McC	McE	SfE	BmS	MzN	MzS
Accipitridae
Brown snake eagle Circaetus cinereus Southern banded snake eagle Circaetus	s	1	1	1	1	0	1	0	0	0	1	1	1	0	0
fasciolatus	F	1	0	0	0	1	1	0	1	1	0	1	0	1	1
African harrier hawk Polyboroides typus	f	0	1	0	0	1	1	0	0	0	0	0	1	0	0
Gabar goshawk Micronisus gabar Eastern pale chanting goshawk Melierax	s	1	0	0	1	0	1	0	0	0	1	1	0	0	0
poliopterus	s	0	0	0	0	0	0	1	0	1	1	0	0	1	1
African goshawk Accipiter tachiro	F	0	0	0	0	1	0	1	1	1	1	1	0	1	1
Shikra Accipiter badius	f	1	0	0	0	0	1	0	0	0	1	1	0	0	0
Little sparrowhawk Accipiter minullus	f	1	0	0	0	0	1	0	0	0	1	1	0	0	1
Lizard buzzard Kaupifalco monogrammicus	f	0	1	1	0	1	0	0	1	0	0	0	0	0	0
Palm-nut vulture Gypohierax angolensis	s	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	1	0	0	0
Ayres' hawk eagle Hieraaetus ayresii	F	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	1	0	0	0	0	0
Long-crested eagle Lophaetus occipitalis African crowned eagle Stephanoaetus	f	0	0	1	0	0	0	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
coronatus	FF	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	1	0	0	0
Falconidae
Pygmy falcon Polihierax semitorquatus	s	0	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
Phasianidae
Crested francolin Francolinus sephaena	s	0	0	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
Numididae
Crested guineafowl Guttera pucherani	F	0	1	0	0	1	0	1	1	0	0	1	1	0	0
Vulturine guineafowl Acryllium vulturinum	s	1	1	0	0	0	1	0	0	0	1	1	0	0	0
Pteroclidae
Black-faced Sandgrouse Pterocles decoratus	s	0	1	1	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
Columbidae
African green pigeon Treron calva	F	1	1	1	1	0	1	1	1	0	1	1	1	1	1
Tambourine dove Turtur tympanistria	F	1	0	0	0	0	1	0	0	0	1	1	1	0	1
Emerald-spotted wood dove Turtur chalcospilos	f	1	1	1	1	0	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	0	1
Red-eyed dove Streptopelia semitorquata	f	1	1	1	1	1	1	0	1	0	1	1	1	0	0
African mourning dove Streptopelia decipiens	s	1	0	0	0	0	1	0	0	0	1	1	0	0	0
Ring-necked dove Streptopelia capicola	f	1	1	0	0	0	1	0	0	1	1	1	0	0	0
Laughing dove Streptopelia senegalensis	s	1	1	0	0	0	1	0	0	0	1	1	0	0	0
Psittacidae
African orange-bellied parrot Poicephalus
rufiventris	s	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	1	0	0	0	0	0	0
Musophagidae
Fischer's turaco Tauraco fischeri	F	1	0	0	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1		1
Cuculidae
Thick-billed cuckoo Pachycoccyx audeberti	f	0	0	1	0	0	0	1	1	0	0	0	0	1	1
Klaas's cuckoo Chrysococcyx klaas	f	0	0	0	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
Diederik cuckoo Chrysococcyx caprius	s	0	0	0	0	0	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
Yellowbill Ceuthmochares aereus	F	0	1	1	0	0	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
White-browed coucal Centropus superciliosus	s	1	1	1	1	0	1	0	0	1	1	1	1	0	0
Strigidae
Pel's fishing owl Scotopelia peli	F	0	0	0	0	1	0	1	1	1	1	1	0	1	1
African barred owlet Glaucidium capense	F	1	0	0	0	1	0	0	0	1	1	0	0	0	0
African wood owl Ciccaba woodfordii	F	1	0	0	0	0	1	0	0	1	1	1	0	0	0
Caprimulgidae
Slender-tailed nightjar Caprimulqus clarus	s	0	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
Apodidae
Mottle-throated spinetail Telacanthura ussheri	F	1	0	0	0	0	1	0	0	0	1	1	0	0	0
African palm swift Cypsiurus parvus	s	0	1	1	0	1	0	1	0	0	0	1	1	0	0
Coliidae
Speckled mousebird Colius striatus	s	0	1	1	1	0	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
White-headed mousebird Colius leucocephalus	s	0	1	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	1	1	0	0	0
Blue-naped mousebird Urocolius macrourus	s	1	0	0	0	0	1	0	0	0	1	1	0	0	0
Trogonidae
Narina's trogon Apaloderma narina	F	1	0	0	0	1	1	1	1	1	0	1	1	1	1
Alcedinidae
Grey-headed kingfisher Halcyon leucocephala	f	0	1	0	1	1	0	1	1	0	1	1	0	0	0
Brown-hooded kingfisher Halcyon albiventris	s	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1
Striped kingfisher Halcyon chelicuti	s	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	1	0	0
African pygmy kingfisher Ispidina picta	f	0	0	1	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	1	0	0
Meropidae
Carmine bee-eater Merops nubicus	s	1	1	0	0	1	1	1	1	0	1	1	1	0	0
White-throated bee-eater Merops albicollis	f	1	0	0	1	1	1	1	1	0	1	1	0	0	0
Coraciidae
Lilac-breasted roller Coracias caudata	s	1	1	1	1	0	1	0	0	1	1	0	0	0	1
Broad-billed roller Eurystomus glaucurus	f	1	0	0	0	0	1	0	0	1	1	1	0	0	1
Phoeniculidae
Green wood-hoopoe Phoeniculus purpureus	s	1	1	1	0	1	1	1	0	1	1	1	1	0	1
Common scimitarbill Rhinopomastus cyanomelas	s	1	1	0	0	1	0	0	1	1	0	1	0	1	0
Bucerotidae
Red-billed hornbill Tockus erythrorhynchus	s	1	0	0	0	0	1	0	0	0	1	1	0	0	0
Von der decken's hornbill Tockus deckeni	s	0	1	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
Crowned hornbill Tockus alboterminatus	f	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	0	1	1	1	0	0
African grey hornbill Tockus nasutus	s	1	1	0	0	0	1	0	0	0	1	1	0	0	0
Trumpeter hornbill Bycanistes bucinator	F	1	0	0	1	1	1	1	1	0	1	1	1	0	0
Capitonidae
Red-fronted tinkerbird Pogoniulus pusillus	s	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	0	1	1	1	0	0
Black-collared barbet Lybius torquatus	f	0	0	0	0	0	1	1	1	1	1	1	0	0	0
Brown-breasted barbet Lybius melanopterus Red-and-yellow barbet Trachylaemus	f	1	0	0	0	0	1	0	0	0	1	1	0	0	0
erythrocephalus	s	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
d'Arnaud's barbet Trachylaemus darnaudii	s	1	1	0	0	0	1	0	0	0	1	1	0	0	0
Indicatoridae
Scaly-throated honeyguide Indicator variegatus	f	1	0	1	0	1	1	0	1	1	0	0	0	1	0
Greater honeyguide Indicator indicator	f	0	0	0	0	1	0	1	1	0	1	1	0	0	0
Lesser honeyguide Indicator minor	f	1	0	0	0	0	1	1	1	0	1	1	0	0	1
Picidae
Nubian woodpecker Campethera nubica	s	0	1	0	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
Little spotted woodpecker Campethera cailliautii	f	0	0	0	0	0	0	1	1	1	0	0	0	1	1
Cardinal woodpecker Denropicos fuscescens	f	1	1	0	1	0	0	0	1	1	0	0	1	0	1
Bearded woodpecker Thripias namaquus	f	1	1	0	1	0	1	1	1	1	1	0	0	0	0
Hirundinidae
Sand martin Riparia riparia	s	1	0	0	0	0	1	0	0	0	1	1	0	0	0
Wire-tailed swallow Hirundo smithii	s	0	0	0	0	1	0	1	1	1	0	0	0	1	0
Barn swallow Hirundo rustica	s	0	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
Motacillidae
African pied wagtail Motacilla aguimp	s	0	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
Pycnonotidae
Zanzibar sombre greenbul Andropadus importunus	s	0	1	1	0	0	1	0	0	0	0	1	0	1	0
Fischer's greenbul Phyllastrephus fischeri	FF	1	1	0	1	1	1	0	0	1	1	1	0	1	1
Northern brownbul Phyllastrephus strepitans	f	1	0	0	0	1	1	1	0	1	1	1	1	1	0
Terrestrial brownbul Phyllastrephus terrestris	F	1	1	0	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	0	1	1
Yellow-bellied greenbul Chlorocichla flaviventris	F	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	1	0	0	1	1	1
Common bulbul Pycnonotus barbatus	f	1	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
Eastern nicator Nicator gularis	F	1	0	0	0	0	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
Timaliidae
Scaly babbler Turdoides squamulatus	s	1	1	0	1	0	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
Scaly chatterer Turdoides aylmeri	s	1	0	0	0	0	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
Turdidae
East coast akalat Sheppardia gunningi	FF	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
Red-capped robin-chat Cossypha natalensis	F	1	1	1	1	0	1	0	1	1	1	1	1	1	1
White-browed robin-chat Cossypha heuglini	f	0	1	1	0	0	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
Red-tailed ant thrush Neocossyphus rufus	FF	1	0	0	1	1	1		1	1	1	1	1	1	1
Collared palm thrush Cichladusa arquata	s	1	0	0	0	0	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
White-browed scrub robin Cercotrichas leucophrys	s	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	1	0
Eastern bearded scrub robin Cercotrichas quadrivirgata	f	1	0	0	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	0	0	1
Rufous bush chat Cercotrichas galactotes	s	0	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0		0	0	0
Muscicapidae
Ashy flycatcher Muscicapa caerulescens Southern black flycatcher Melaenornis	F	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	1	0	0	0	0	0
pammelaina	s	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	1	0	0
Pale flycatcher Bradornis pallidus	s	0	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	0	1	1	0	0	0
Sylviidae
Siffling cisticola Cisticola brachypterus	s	0	1	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
Tawny-flanked prinia Prinia subflava	f	1	1	1	1	0	1	0	0	0	1	1	0	0	0
Grey wren-warbler Calamonastes simplex	s	0	1	1	0	0	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
Grey-backed camaroptera Camaroptera brachyura	f	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	0	1	1	1	0	0
Yellow-breasted apalis Apalis flavida	f	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	1	0	0	0
Black-headed apalis Apalis melanocephala	FF	1	0	0	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	0	1	1
Northern crombec Sylvietta brachyura	s	0	1	1	0	1	0	0	0	0	1	0	0	0	0
Monarchidae
Little yellow flycatcher Erythrocercus holochlorus	FF	1	0	0	1	0	1	0	1	0	0	1	1	0	0
Blue-mantled crested flycatcher Trochocercus cyanomelas	FF	0	0	0	0	0	1	0	1	1	0	1	1	1	1
African paradise flycatcher Terpsiphone viridis	f	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1
Platysteiridae
Pale batis Batis soror	F	1	0	0	0	0	1	1	0	0	0	1	0	0	0
Pygmy batis Batis perkeo	s	1	0	0	0	0	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
Black-headed batis Batis minor	s	0	0	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
Black-throated wattle-eye Platysteira peltata	F	0	1	1	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	1	0	0	1
Prionopidae
White-crested helmet-shrike Prionops plumatu	s s	0	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	1	0
Retz's helmet-shrike Prionops retzii	f	1	0	0	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	1	1	0	0
Northern white-crowned shrike Eurocephalus rueppelli	s	0	1	1	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
Laniidae
Red-backed shrike Lanius collurio	s	0	1	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
Malaconotidae
Brubru Nilaus afer	s	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	1	1	0	0	0	1	1
Black-crowned tchagra Tchagra senegala	s	0	1	0	0	0	0	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
Sulphur-breasted bush-shrike Malaconotus sulfureopectus	f	1	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
Four-coloured bush-shrike Malaconotus quadricolor	F	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	1	0	0	0	1	1
Grey-headed bush-shrike Malaconotus blanchoti	s	0	1	1	0	0	0	0	1	0	0	0	0	0	0
Tropical boubou Laniarius aethiopicus	f	1	1	1	1	1	1	0	0	1	1	1	1	0	1
Black-backed puffback Dryoscopus cubla	F	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1
Campephagidae
Black cuckoo-shrike Campephaga flava	f	0	0	0	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
Dicruridae
Common drongo Dicrurus adsimilis	s	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	0	1	1	1	0	0
Square-tailed drongo Dicrurus ludwigii	F	1	1	0	0	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	0	1	1
Oriolidae
Eurasian golden oriole Oriolus oriolus	f	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	1	0	0
Black-headed oriole Oriolus larvatus	f	1	1	1	1	0	0	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1
Sturnidae
Black-bellied starling Lamprotornis corruscus Rüppell's long-tailed starling Lamprotornis	F	1	0	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1
purpuropterus	s	1	1	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	1	1	1	0	0
Shelley's starling Lamprotornis shelleyi	s	0	1	0	0	0	0	0	1	0	0	0	0	0	0
Superb starling Lamprotornis superbus	s	1	0	0	0	0	1	0	0	0	1	1	0	0	0
Golden-breasted starling Cosmopsarus regius	s	0	1	1	0	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
Fischer's starling Spreo fischeri	s	1	1	0	0	0	1	0	0	0	1	1	0	0	0
Magpie starling Speculipastor bicolor	s	0	1	1	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	1	0	0
Wattled starling Creatophora cinerea	s	0	1	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
Nectariniidae
Eastern violet-backed sunbird Anthreptes orientalis	s	0	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
Collared sunbird Anthreptes collaris	F	1	1	1	1	1	1	0	0	1	1	1	1	0	1
Olive sunbird Nectarinia olivacea	FF	1	0	0	0	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1
Amethyst sunbird Nectarinia amethystina	f	0	1	0	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	1	0
Hunter's sunbird Nectarinia hunteri	s	0	1	0	0	1	0	1	1	0	0	0	0	0	0
Variable sunbird Nectarinia venusta	f	1	0	1	0	0	1	0	0	0	1	1	1	0	0
Violet-breasted sunbird Nectarinia chalcomelas	s	0	1	1	0	0	0	0	0	1	0	0	0	0	0
Black-bellied sunbird Nectarinia nectarinioides	s	0	1	1	1	0	0	1	0	0	0	0	1	0	0
Passeridae
Grey-headed sparrow Passer griseus	s	0	0	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
Ploceidae
White-headed buffalo-weaver Dinemellia dinemelli	s	1	1	1	0	0	1	0	0	0	1	1	0	0	0
Red-billed buffalo-weaver Bubalornis niger	s	1	1	1	1	0	1	0	0	0	1	1	1	0	0
Grosbeak weaver Amblyospiza albifrons	f	0	0	0	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	1	0	0
Spectacled weaver Ploceus ocularis	f	0	0	0	1	1	1	1	1	0	0	0	0	0	0
African golden weaver Ploceus subaureus	s	0	0	0	0	0	1	0	0	0	0	1	0	0	0
Golden palm weaver Ploceus bojeri	s	0	1	1	1	1	0	1	1	0	0	1	0	0	0
Lesser masked weaver Ploceus intermedius	s	0	1	1	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	1	0	0
Black-headed weaver Ploceus cucullatus	s	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	1	1	0	0	0	1	1
Dark-backed weaver Ploceus bicolor	F	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	0	1	1	1	0	0
Red-billed quelea Quelea quelea	s	0	1	0	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	1	0	0
Estrildidae
Green-winged pytilia Pytilia melba	s	0	0	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
Green-backed twinspot Mandingoa nitidula	FF	1	0	0	0	0	1	0	0	0	1	1	0	0	0
Red-billed firefinch Lagonosticta senegala	s	1	0	1	0	0	1	0	0	0	1	1	0	0	0
Black-and-white mannikin Lonchura bicolor	f	0	0	0	0	1	1	1	1	0	1	0	0	0	0
Fringillidae
Yellow-fronted canary Serinus mozambicus	s	0	0	0	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
Summary	Total	79	79	58	54	46	81	46	53	45	71	81	47	33	38
	FF	7	1	0	4	4	7	2	5	5	5	8	4	5	5
	F	18	10	8	10	14	18	13	14	17	16	20	12	12	16
	f	25	18	15	20	15	24	18	20	13	23	23	15	8	12
	s	29	50	35	20	13	32	13	14	10	27	30	16	9	6

1 and 0 indicate presence and no records of species respectively.

Appendix 2

Bird species ringed from the14 forest patches of the Tana River Primate National Reserve, Kenya.

	Forest patches
Bird species by groups	WjE	Kpd	Mrn	MrE	Mkr	MkE	GrN	GrS	McC	McE	SfE	BmS	MzN	MzS	Total
Forest specialists (FF)
Fischer's greenbul	1	0	0	6	0	0	0	0	12	5	1	0	7	2	34
East coast akalat	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	1
Red-tailed ant thrush	0	0	0	2	0	1	0	2	8	1	1	4	1	3	23
Blue-mantled crested flycatcher	0	0	0	0	0	2	0	0	2	0	0	1	2	0	7
Olive Sunbird	10	4	1	4	0	7	5	4	13	5	5	3	5	4	70
Green-backed twinspot	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	3	0	0	0	3
Forest generalists (F)
Tambourine dove	0	1	0	1	0	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	3
African barred owlet	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	1	0	1	0	0	0	2
Narina's trogon	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	3	0	0	1	0	5
Terrestrial brownbul	1	5	2	2	0	2	0	2	1	0	0	0	3	2	20
Yellow-bellied greenbul	0	2	0	2	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	4
Eastern nicator	2	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	2
Red-capped robin-chat	2	4	3	7	0	0	0	0	31	6	4	2	6	3	68
Square-tailed drongo	0	2	0	0	0	0	0	0	2	0	0	0	0	1	5
Collared sunbird	0	1	0	0	2	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	3
Dark-backed weaver	1	1	0	1	0	4	0	0	0	2	0	0	0	0	9
Forest visitors (f)
Emerald-spotted wood dove	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	1	0	0	1
Grey-headed kingfisher	0	0	0	0	0	0	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	1
African pygmy kingfisher	0	2	2	2	3	1	4	2	5	2	0	0	2	0	25
Scaly-throated honeyguide	0	0	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	1
Northern brownbul	1	0	0	0	3	0	0	0	1	0	0	0	0	0	5
White-browed robin-chat	0	0	0	0	0	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	1
Eastern bearded scrub robin	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	3	2	0	0	1	3	0	10
Tawny-flanked prinia	0	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	1
Grey-backed camaroptera	0	1	1	0	0	3	1	1	0	2	0	0	0	0	9
African paradise flycatcher	1	2	1	1	1	2	0	0	0	0	0	2	0	0	10
Retz's helmet-shrike	0	0	0	2	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	2
Tropical boubou	0	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	2	0	0	0	0	3
Spectacled weaver	0	0	0	1	0	2	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	3
Savannah & woodland species (s)
Brown-hooded kingfisher	0	0	0	4	0	0	0	0	5	3	0	0	0	2	14
Red-billed hornbill	0	0	0	0	0	5	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	5
Red-fronted tinkerbird	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	1
Zanzibar sombre greenbul	0	0	0	0	0	2	0	0	0	1	0	0	0	1	4
Scaly babbler	2	0	0	2	0	3	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	7
Collared palm thrush	2	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	2
Common drongo	0	0	0	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	1
African golden weaver	0	2	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	1	0	0	0	0	3
Golden palm weaver	0	0	6	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	6
Lesser masked weaver	0	0	9	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	9
Summary
Total ringed	27	29	29	38	9	36	11	14	83	33	15	14	30	18	386
FF	12	4	1	12	0	10	5	6	35	11	10	8	15	9	138
F	7	16	5	13	2	7	0	2	35	11	5	2	10	6	121
f	3	7	5	6	7	9	6	6	8	6	0	4	5	0	72
s	5	2	18	7	0	10	0	0	5	5	0	0	0	3	55

Appendix 3

Relative abundance and ranks (in parentheses) for the top 10 bird species identified from the timed species counts in the 14 forest patches of the Tana River Primate National Reserve. Only birds recorded above 3 m and within 25 m included.

	Forest patches
Species	WjE	Kpd	Mrn	MrE	Mkr	MkE	GrN	GrS	McC	McE	SfE	BmS	MzN	MzS
African						0.7(09)	0.9(10)
goshawk
African	1.2(09)											0.2(07)	0.3(05)
green
pigeon
Tambourine 1.8(06)				1.0(08)	2.9(01)	0.9(07)			1.7(08)
dove
Emerald-	3.6(01)	1.8(02)		1.3(06)
spotted
wood dove
Red-eyed	1.1(10)	1.6(05)	1.6(07)	1.6(05)		0.8(08)	1.6(05)				0.8(09)	0.2(06)
dove
Fischer's 1.4(09)										2.8(04)	1.0(06)
turaco
Narina's												0.1(08)
trogon
Grey-								0.2(08)					0.4(03)
headed
kingfisher
Brown-		1.3(08)	2.0(04)	1.7(04)	2.5(03)	1.7(02)	3.6(01)			2.1(09)		0.2(05)	0.2(09)
hooded
kingfisher
White-								0.31(06)
throated
bee-eater
Lilac-	1.8(03)	1.5(06)
breasted
roller
Green													0.4(04)
wood-
hoopoe
Von der	1.3(07)
decken's
hornbill
Crowned											0.7(10)		0.2(08)
hornbill
Trumpeter			1.08(10)				1.1(08)			2.3(07)
hornbill
Yellow-				1.8(03)		1.2(04)	1.4(06)
rumped
tinkerbird
Red-fronted 2.3(05)				1.9(02)
tinkerbird
Brown-									1.4(10)
breasted
barbet
Little													0.2(06)
spotted
woodpecker
Bearded								0.2(07)
woodpecker
Fischer's								0.1(10)	1.8(07)
greenbul
Terrestrial			1.2(09)
brownbul
Red-capped					1.50(9)	1.0(06)			1.8(06)		1.2(05)
robin-chat
Eastern					1.92(7)
bearded
scrub robin
Grey-	1.3(10)					1.58(8)						0.9(07)
backed
camaroptera
Black-	1.6(08)								0.4(05)	1.5(09)	2.0(10)		0.5(02)	0.2(07)
headed
apalis
African			1.4(07)	1.8(05)				1.0(09)	0.7(02)			1.3(04)
paradise
flycatcher
Pale batis							1.1(05)
Northern		1.5(05)	1.9(01)
white-
crowned
shrike
Tropical	3.0(01)		1.7(04)	3.1(01)	2.0(01)	2.8(02)	2.5(01)	3.4(02)		2.5(02)	3.6(01) 3.1(01)
boubou
Black-	1.8(07)			2.3(02)	0.8(09)	2.2(05)	0.6(10)			2.4(03)	2.7(05)	0.8(08)
backed
puffback
Common				1.3(08)								2.0(03)
drongo
Square-	2.5(03)				1.3(07)			1.9(04)	0.4(04)	2.2(05)	3.3(02)		0.3(03)
tailed
drongo
Black-		1.7(04)	1.2(09)	1.8(06)									0.1(10)
headed
oriole
Black-					0.8(10)			1.3(07)			2.2(08)
bellied
starling
Wattled		1.3(08)
starling
Collared				2.1(03)										0.1(10)
sunbird
Olive	2.8(02)					2.4(04)	1.4(03)	2.1(03)	1.4(01)	3.2(01)	2.6(06)		1.4(01)	0.7(01)
sunbird
Variable						1.4(10)
sunbird
Red-billed		1.4(06)
buffalo-
weaver
Lesser		2.1(02)	1.8(03)
masked
weaver
Black-									0.2(09)				0.1(09)
headed
weaver
Dark-	2.3(04)		1.1(10)			2.1(06)			0.6(03)	2.4(04)	3.2(03)	2.1(02)	0.2(04)	0.7(02)
backed
weaver

WjE, Wenje East; Kpd, Kipendi; Mrn, Maroni; MrE, Maroni East; Mkr, Makere; MkE, Makere East; GrN, Guru North; GrS, Guru South & central; McC, Mchelelo Complex; McE, Mchelelo East; SfE, Sifa East; BmS, Baomo South; MzN, Manzini North; MzS, Mnazini South

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