Blueberry fruits were located in full shade (complete darkness), partial shade (16% full sun) and light exposed (100% full sun) conditions. An inversely proportional relationship between the growth rate of the fruit and its relative water content was clear in fully shaded fruits, with an increase in the shaded fruits transpiration rate during ripening having been recorded. The pedicels of light-exposed fruits showed greater development of phloem tissue than those of fully shaded fruits. The structure of the stomata was modified in the fully shaded fruits, with a decrease in the size of the subsidiary cells. The epidermis of exposed and partially shaded fruits presented a profuse layer of epicuticular wax at maturity, which was almost absent in fully shaded fruits. Throughout blueberry fruit development, the deficiency of solar radiation induced anatomical changes that, in turn, affected water economy.
Jorquera-FontenaEGénardMFranckN. Analysis of blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum L.) fruit water dynamics during growth using an ecophysiological model. The Journal of Horticultural Science and Biotechnology2017; 92: 649–659.
2.
GodoyCMonterubbianesiGTognettiJ. Analysis of highbush blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum L.) fruit growth with exponential mixed models. Sci Hortic2008; 115: 368–376.
3.
BirkholdKTKochKEDarnellRL. Carbon and nitrogen economy of developing rabbiteye blueberry fruit. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci1992; 117: 139–145.
4.
KonarskaA. Development of fruit quality traits and comparison of the fruit structure of two Vaccinium corymbosum (L.) cultivars. Sci Hortic2015; 194: 79–90.
5.
KonarskaA. Morphological, anatomical, and ultrastructural changes in Vaccinium corymbosum fruits during ontogeny. Botany2015; 93: 589–602.
6.
BlankeMM. Structure and function of blueberry fruit and flowers: stomata, transpiration and photoassimilation. Horticulturae2024; 10: 06.
7.
GodoyCMonterubbianesiGSanchezE, et al.Cluster illumination differentially affects growth of fruits along their ontogeny in highbush blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum L.). Sci Hortic2018; 230: 1–10.
8.
Laval-MartinDFarineauJDiamondJ. Light versus dark carbon metabolism and photosynthetic activity in cherry tomato fruits. I. Occurrence of photosynthesis. Study of intermediates. Plant Physiol1977; 60: 872–876.
9.
BlankeMMLenzF. Fruit photosynthesis. Rev. Plant, Cell and Environ1989; 12: 21–46.
10.
BlankeMM. Photosynthesis of avocado fruit. Proc Sec World Avocado Congress. Univ California1992; I: 179–189.
11.
SmillieRMHetheringtonSEDaviesWJ. Photosynthetic activity of the calyx, green shoulder, pericarp, and locular parenchyma of tomato fruit. J. Exp. Bot1999; 50: 707–718.
12.
GuilletCJustDBénardN, et al.A fruit-specific phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase is related to rapid growth of tomato fruit. Planta2002; 214: 717–726.
13.
SuiXShanNHuL, et al.The complex character of photosynthesis in cucumber fruit. J. Exp. Bot2017; 68: 1625–1637.
14.
HockingBTyermanSDBurtonRA, et al.Fruit calcium: transport and physiology. Front Plant Sci2016; 7: 69.
15.
BondadaBRMatthewsMAShackelKA. Functional xylem in the post-veraison grape berry. J. Exp. Bot2005; 56: 2949–2957.
16.
ChoatBGambettaGAShackelKA, et al.Vascular function in grape berries across development and its relevance to apparent hydraulic isolation. Plant Physiol2009; 151: 1677–1687.
17.
KnipferTFeiJGambettaGA, et al.Water transport properties of the grape pedicel during fruit development: insights into xylem anatomy and function using microtomography. Plant Physiol2015; 168: 1590–1602.
18.
NordeyTLéchaudelMGénardM. The decline in xylem flow to mango fruit at the end of its development is related to the appearance of embolism in the fruit pedicel. Funct Plant Biol2015; 42: 668–675.
19.
GreenspanMDShackelKAMatthewsMA. Developmental changes in the diurnal water-budget of the grape berry exposed to water deficits. Plant Cell Environ1994; 17: 811–820.
20.
ThomasTRMatthewsMAShackelKA. Direct in situ measurement of cell turgor in grape (Vitis vinifera L.) berries during development and in response to plant water deficits. Plant Cell Environ2006; 29: 993–1001.
21.
ZhangX-YWangX-LWangX-F, et al.A shift of phloem unloading from symplasmic to apoplasmic pathway is involved in developmental onset of ripening in grape berry. Plant Physiol2006; 142: 220–232.
22.
ConstantinescuDVercambreGGénardM. Model-assisted analysis of the peach pedicel–fruit system suggests regulation of sugar uptake and a water-saving strategy. J Exp Bot2015; 71: 3463–3474.
23.
da Silva BenevenuteSMotunrayo AdunolaPNunezGH. Diversity in stomata morphology among cultivated blueberry genotypes and its influence on irradiance response dynamics. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci2025; 150: 42–51.
24.
RoniMZKRetana-CorderoMda Silva BenevenuteS, et al.Photosynthetic activity in highbush blueberry plants: a review. HortScience2025; 60: 1276–1281.
25.
MatthewsJSAVialet-ChabrandSLawsonT. Role of blue and red light in stomatal dynamic behaviour. J Exp Bot2020; 71: 2253–2269.
26.
JamesSABellDT. Influence of light availability on leaf structure and growth of two Eucalyptus globulus ssp. globulus provenances. Tree Physiol2000; 20: 1007–1018.
27.
SchultzHRMatthewsMA. Xylem development and hydraulic conductance in sun and shade shoots of grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.): evidence that low light uncouples water transport capacity from leaf area. Planta1993; 190: 393–406.
28.
MurchieEHHortonP. Acclimation of photosynthesis to irradiance and spectral quality in British plant species: chlorophyll content, photosynthetic capacity and habitat preference. Plant, Cell Environ1997; 20: 438–448.
29.
WildAWolfG. The effect of different light intensities on the frequency and size of stomata, the size of cells, the number, size and chlorophyll content of chloroplasts in the mesophyll and the guard cells during the ontogeny of primary leaves of Sinapis alba. Zeit für Pflanzenphysiol1980; 97: 325–342.
30.
EvansJRPoorterH. Photosynthetic acclimation of plants to growth irradiance: the relative importance of specific leaf area and nitrogen partitioning in maximizing carbon gain. Plant, Cell Environ2001; 24: 755–767.
31.
TerashimaIMiyazawaSIHanbaYT. Why are sun leaves thicker than shade leaves? Consideration based on analyses of CO2 diffusion in the leaf. J Plant Res2001; 114: 93–105.
32.
FanXXuZLiuX, et al.Effects of light intensity on the growth and leaf development of young tomato plants grown under a combination of red and blue light. Sci Hortic2013; 153: 50–55.
33.
GillaspyGE. Fruits – A developmental perspective. Plant Cell1993; 5: 1439–1451.
34.
BiasiRAltamuraMM. Light enhances differentiation of the vascular system in the fruit of Actinidia deliciosa. Physiol Plant1996; 98: 28–35.
35.
WangXQHuangWDZhanJC. Effects of low light on phloem ultrastructure and subcellular localization of sucrose synthase in Prunus persica var. nucipersica fruit. Russ J Plant Physiol2009; 56: 462–469.
36.
KliewerWMLiderLA. Influence of cluster exposure to the sun on the composition of thompson seedless fruit. Am. J. Enol. Vitic1968; 19: 175–184.
37.
BergqvistJDokoozlianNEbisudaN. Sunlight exposure and temperature effects on berry growth and composition of Cabernet Sauvignon and Grenache in the central San Joaquin valley of California. Am J. Enol Vitic2001; 52: –7.
38.
YamaneTJeongSTYamamotoN, et al.Effects of temperature on anthocyanin biosynthesis in grape berry skins. Am. J. Enol. Vitic2006; 57: 54–59.
39.
Rojas-BarrosPWernowJWorkmasterBA, et al.Fruit cuticle thickness and anatomical changes in pedicel xylem vessels influence fruit transpiration and calcium accumulation in cranberry fruit. Phyiol Plant2025; 177: e70036.
40.
Cano-MedranoRDarnellR. Cell number and cell size in parthenocarpic vs. Pollinated blueberry (Vaccinium ashei) fruits. Ann. Bot1997; 80: 419–425.
41.
YangFDevetterLWStrikBC, et al.Stomatal functioning and its influence on calcium accumulation during fruit development in northern highbush blueberry. HortScience2019; 55: 1–7.
42.
DoyleJWNambeesanSUMalladiA. Physiology of nitrogen and calcium nutrition in blueberry (Vaccinium sp.). Agronomy2021; 11: 65.
McAuslandLVialet-ChabrandSDaveyP, et al.Effects of kinetics of light-induced stomatal responses on photosynthesis and water-use efficiency. New Phytol2016; 211: 1209–1220.
48.
TrivediPNguyenNHykkerudAL, et al.Developmental and environmental regulation of cuticular wax biosynthesis in fleshy fruits. Front Plant Sci2019; 10: 31.
49.
DashbaldanSBeckerRPaczkowskiC, et al.Various patterns of composition and accumulation of steroids and triterpenoids in cuticular waxes from screened Ericaceae and Caprifoliaceae berries during fruit development. Molecules2019; 24: 3826.
50.
ChuWGaoHShC, et al.Composition and morphology of cuticular wax in blueberry (Vaccinium spp.) fruits. Food Chem2017; 219: 436–442.
51.
YanYGagalovaKKGerbrantEM, et al.Cuticular wax biosynthesis in blueberries (Vaccinium corymbosum L.): transcript and metabolite changes during ripening and storage affect key fruit quality traits. Hortic Res2024; 11: uhae004.
MoggiaCGraellJLaraI, et al.Fruit characteristics and cuticle triterpenes as related to postharvest quality of highbush blueberries. Sci Hortic2016; 211: 449–457.
54.
MoggiaCLaraIGraellJ, et al.Are fruit surface differences in two blueberry cultivars major drivers of contrasting postharvest dynamics?Horticulturae2022; 8: 07.
55.
BarthlottWNeinhuisCCutlerD, et al.Classification and terminology of plant epicuticular waxes. Bot J Linn Soc1998; 126: 237–260.
56.
ChristensenJV. Cracking in cherries: vI. Cracking susceptibility in relation to the growth rhythm of the fruit. Acta Agricul Scandina1973; 23: 52–54.
57.
OhtaKHosokiTMatsumotoK, et al.Relationship between fruit cracking and changes of fruit diameter associated with solute flow to fruit in cherry tomatoes. J Jpn Soc Hortic Sci1997; 65: 753–759.
58.
GibertCLescourretFGénardM, et al.Modelling the effect of fruit growth on surface conductance to water vapour diffusion. Ann Bot2005; 95: 673–683.
59.
HiekeSMenzelCMLuddersP. Effects of leaf, shoot and fruit development on photosynthesis of lychee trees (Litchi chinensis). Tree Physiol2002; 22: 955–961.
60.
KnocheMPeschelSHinzM, et al.Studies on water transport through the sweet cherry fruit surface: iI: conductance of the cuticle in relation to fruit development. Planta2001; 213: 927–936.
61.
MukhtarADamerowLBlankeMM. Non-invasive assessment of glossiness and polishing of the wax bloom of European plum. Postharvest Biol. Tec2014; 87: 144–151.
62.
KalcsitsLMattheisJGiordaniL, et al.Fruit canopy positioning affects fruit calcium and potassium concentrations, disorder incidence, and fruit quality for ‘honeycrisp’ apple. Can. J. Plant Sci2019; 99: 761–771.
63.
MontanaroGDichioBXiloyannisC, et al.Light influences transpiration and calcium accumulation in fruit of kiwifruit plants (Actinidia chinensis var. deliciosa). Plant Sci2006; 170: 520–527.
64.
MontanaroGDichioBXiloyannisC. Significance of fruit transpiration on calcium nutrition in developing apricot fruit. J Plant Nutr Soil Sci2010; 173: 618–622.
65.
BernadacAJean-BaptisteIBertoniG, et al.Change in calcium contents during melon (Cucumis melo L.) fruit development. Sci. Hortic1996; 66: 181–189.
66.
WinklerAFiedlerBKnocheM. Calcium physiology of sweet cherry fruits. Trees2020; 34: 1157–1167.
