Librarians’ preparedness for the 5th Industrial Revolution towards information service delivery

Abstract

This study examined the preparedness of librarians for 5th IR with a focus on their awareness, level of preparedness, required competencies, and the challenges influencing effective information service delivery in Nigeria. The study adopted a descriptive survey research design, with data collected from 402 librarians across Nigeria’s six geopolitical zones using a structured questionnaire. The instrument was validated and yielded a reliability coefficient of 0.87. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics (frequency, percentage, mean, and standard deviation) and multiple regression analysis at a 0.05 level of significance. The findings revealed a high level of awareness of 5th IR technologies among librarians, particularly in areas such as automation, artificial intelligence, and digital transformation. However, the level of preparedness was found to be moderate, indicating a gap between awareness and practical application. Librarians demonstrated strong competencies in foundational areas such as information retrieval systems, electronic resource management, and digital collections, but showed relatively lower proficiency in advanced and emerging technologies. The study further identified key challenges, including inadequate funding, limited training opportunities, poor infrastructure, unstable power supply, and the high cost of technological tools. In addition, the results showed that demographic factors jointly influenced librarians’ preparedness, with age, years of experience, and educational qualification emerging as significant predictors, while gender had no significant effect. The study concludes that although librarians exhibit a positive disposition and foundational readiness for the 5th IR, there is a need to strengthen practical competencies and address systemic constraints. It recommends increased investment in technological infrastructure, continuous professional development, and strategic policy interventions to enhance librarians’ capacity for effective participation in the evolving digital information environment.

Introduction

Information resources and services are transforming into a technologically driven format accessible anytime and anywhere using sophisticated ICT devices. To provide effective information services to users, libraries are adjusting to include cutting-edge technologies and collaborative approaches. Librarians are essential in navigating these changes. Positive changes in library operations brought about by information and communication technology (ICT), including the effects of the Industrial Revolution (IR), are reflected in the persistent demand for greater customization and flexibility in information dissemination and services. ¹

The Industrial Revolution is a turning point in human history that saw economies move from being largely dependent on agriculture to being industrialized and propelled by machines. Silva and Pandin^1,2 observed that the transition from largely agricultural economies to industrialized, machine-powered production is a key turning point in human history, known as the Industrial Revolution. The growth of global capitalism and advancements in technology propelled the Industrial Revolution, which started in the United Kingdom in the 19th century. From steam and water power to electricity, digital technology, and cyber-physical systems, it underwent several stages of development. In addition to generating environmental damage and upsetting traditional lifestyles, this transition brought about significant changes like urbanization, changed labour practices, and the emergence of new social classes. Notwithstanding these obstacles, the revolution forces societies to reconsider and modify their structures to guarantee accessibility and inclusivity. It highlights the need for a workforce skilled in adaptability, digital literacy, and ethical considerations in technology to succeed in the industrial revolution.

It might be difficult to demonstrate how technological innovation has developed during a specific period. The first industrial revolution was characterized by the steam engine, which changed civilization from an agrarian to an urban one in the late 18th century. The second industrial revolution saw the emergence of electricity, cars, and telephones. The third industrial revolution brought computers, electronics, and automation, ushering in the information society. With the growth of the internet, artificial intelligence, AI-driven automation, and biotechnology, the fourth industrial revolution has had an even greater impact on humanity. The focus of advancement in the fourth industrial revolution, or Industry 4.0, is technology, specifically robots, artificial intelligence, and other components. The 5th IR, or IR 5.0, perceives individuals as partners at work in manufacturing and production organizations (Figure 1). ³

Figure 1.

The progression of industrial revolutions Source: Noble et.al. ⁴

Adel ⁵ expressed the view that the 5th IR will help to revolutionize human–machine cooperation to improve the effectiveness of information service delivery to library patrons. Big data analytics, the Internet of Things, collaborative robotics, blockchain, digital twins, and upcoming 6G networks are all crucial technologies for putting the 5th IR into practice. With the onset of the 5th IR, the role of librarians is changing dramatically in this age of unprecedented change and innovation, which is marked by the integration of digital technologies, artificial intelligence, and the Internet of Things. Librarians’ skills and knowledge are essential to ensuring that libraries continue to play their vital role as custodians of knowledge and information. Notably, librarians are now leading the charge in overseeing vast digital collections, negotiating intricate information environments, and enabling access to a wide range of resources. Librarians must have a broad range of abilities and expertise, including both established library practices and new technology capabilities, to successfully address the difficulties and take advantage of the opportunities presented by the 5th IR. ⁶ This paper set out to examine the level of preparedness of Nigerian librarians for the 5th IR and how their skills and competencies can enhance information service delivery. The paper also highlighted the challenges faced by librarians in trying to get prepared for the 5th IR era as well as provide necessary strategies to mitigate these challenges.

Problem statement

The emergence of 5th IR is fundamentally reshaping information ecosystems, thereby redefining the roles and competencies required of librarians in delivering effective information services. Unlike previous technological transitions, the speed, complexity, and human–machine integration that characterize 5th IR technologies, such as artificial intelligence, machine learning, and robotics, pose unprecedented challenges to traditional librarianship practices. While libraries have historically adapted to technological change, there is growing concern that many librarians lack the requisite competencies to effectively engage with these advanced technologies, thereby limiting their capacity to deliver innovative and responsive information services.

This challenge is further compounded by a widening gap between the competencies demanded by the 5th IR environment and the existing skill sets of librarians. The persistence of outdated skills, coupled with inadequate training and limited institutional support, undermines librarians’ preparedness and creates a significant service delivery gap. If unaddressed, this mismatch threatens the relevance and sustainability of libraries within an increasingly digital and technology-driven information landscape. Despite the critical implications of this transition, empirical studies examining librarians’ preparedness for the 5th IR, particularly in relation to information service delivery, remain limited and fragmented, especially within the Nigerian context. Existing studies largely focus on awareness or general challenges, with insufficient attention to a comprehensive assessment of preparedness that integrates competencies, institutional factors, and practical readiness. Consequently, there is a need for a more nuanced and systematic investigation into the extent to which librarians are equipped to navigate the demands of the 5th IR. It is against this backdrop that this study examines librarians’ preparedness for the 5th IR towards effective information service delivery, with a view to bridging existing knowledge gaps and informing strategies for enhancing library relevance in the evolving digital era.

Objectives of the study

(1) To examine the awareness of librarians for the 5th IR;

(2) To examine the level of librarians’ preparedness towards the 5th IR;

(3) To identify the required competencies for information service delivery in 5th IR;

(4) To identify the challenges librarians face in preparing for the 5th IR;

(5) To investigate the relationship between demographic variables (gender, years of experience and qualification) and the level of preparedness towards 5th IR.

Hypotheses

H₀1

There is no significant joint relationship between the demographic factors (Age, Gender, Qualification, Experience) and the level of preparedness towards 5th IR.

H₀2

There is no significant independent relationship between the demographic factors (Age, Gender, Qualification, Experience) and the level of preparedness towards 5th IR.

Technology Readiness Index (TRI) theory

The technology Readiness Index (TRI) was developed by Parasuraman, ⁷ who asserts that technology is crucial to service marketing. The TRI gauges how prepared a person is to embrace and utilize emerging technology. The model shows how people feel and think about a certain new technology. It focuses on people’s acceptance of such a new technological innovation rather than trying to determine how well they know how to use a technology. Drivers and inhibitors of new technology utilization are the two-factor components used by the TRI. This model can therefore be used to measure the preparedness of Librarians towards the 5th IR for Service Delivery. Colby and Parasuraman ⁸ improved on the TRI model by suggesting four dimensions or behaviours that need to be considered when measuring the TRI, namely, optimism – this is a positive view about the technology, which leads to efficiency in life. Innovativeness, the second dimension, raises the possibility of being an early adopter of new technologies. The third is insecurity, which typically results from worries about security, privacy, and general mistrust of technology. The fourth dimension is discomfort, which comes about as a result of the need to control, which invariably leads to a sense of being overwhelmed. According to Colby and Parasuraman, ⁸ these factors explain people’s mental preparedness to embrace and utilize new technologies. In contrast to insecurity and discomfort, optimism and inventiveness are motivators. Few studies have used the Technology Readiness Index to measure the preparedness of librarians towards adopting new technologies. Shonhe, ⁹ in a study assessing the technological readiness of public librarians in Botswana, found that public librarians are prepared to adopt information and communications technologies (ICTs) in the delivery of library services. Specifically, TRI explains readiness through four dimensions, optimism, innovativeness, discomfort, and insecurity, which collectively capture both the enabling and inhibiting factors influencing technology adoption. Given the foregoing, the Technology Readiness Index (TRI) Theory is highly relevant to this study as it provides a robust framework for understanding librarians’ preparedness to adopt and utilize emerging technologies associated with the 5th IR. More so, the TRI theory is particularly suitable for this research as it not only helps to explain the current state of librarians’ preparedness but also provides insight into the underlying attitudes and constraints shaping their readiness to engage with 5th IR technologies for improved information service delivery.

Literature review

The discourse on 5th IR reflects an evolution from earlier industrial paradigms, yet literature reveals notable conceptual ambiguities regarding its defining characteristics and implications for professional domains such as librarianship. While scholars such as Nwobu et al. ⁶ frame 5th IR as a continuation of previous industrial transformations, others, including Brougham and Haar, ¹⁰ reduce its scope primarily to technological disruption through artificial intelligence (AI) and robotics. This technologically deterministic view is, however, problematised by Noble et al., ⁴ who argue that 5th IR extends beyond human–machine interaction to encompass broader societal challenges, thereby positioning libraries as critical actors in addressing issues such as knowledge equity and sustainable development. This divergence suggests that the literature lacks a unified theoretical grounding, which has implications for how librarians’ preparedness is conceptualized and measured.

Several studies on librarians’ awareness of 5th IR technologies tend to converge on a generally high level of awareness but diverge significantly in interpreting its implications. For instance, Eiriemiokhale and Sulyman ¹¹ and Abayomi et al. ¹² report that librarians demonstrate familiarity with AI-driven tools and recognize their utility in enhancing service delivery. Similarly, Ekwueme et al. ¹³ identify awareness of robotics and Internet of Things (IoT) technologies among academic librarians. However, these studies largely equate awareness with preparedness, an assumption that is critically challenged within the literature. Awareness, as noted by Eiriemiokhale and Sulyman, ¹¹ is a prerequisite for adoption, yet it does not inherently translate into effective utilization. This distinction is crucial, as it exposes a tendency in prior studies to adopt a linear progression model, without sufficiently interrogating intervening variables such as institutional capacity, skills, and attitudes. This is further reinforced by Saibakumo ¹⁴ who discovered that Nigerian librarians are in a transitional phase of adopting technologies, including cloud computing, big data, AI, and blockchain; however, such claims remain insufficiently supported by empirical measures of actual readiness.

The notion of preparedness itself is inconsistently addressed, with studies presenting contradictory findings across contexts. While Subaveerapandiyan et al. ¹⁵ report positive readiness among librarians in Zambia, this optimism is reinforced by Subaveerapandiyan and Gozali, ¹⁶ who highlight strong anticipation among librarians in India towards AI implementation. In contrast, Liman and Aliyu ¹⁷ identify significant gaps in familiarity with emerging technologies among Nigerian librarians, suggesting a reluctance or inability to engage with such innovations. These divergent findings indicate the dependent nature of preparedness and reveal a lack of comparative and explanatory depth in existing studies.

An underexplored dimension of 5th IR discourse is the role of human factors in shaping technological adoption. While Abayomi et al. ¹² acknowledge librarians’ positive perceptions of AI’s benefits, they also reveal underlying anxieties related to job displacement. This tension underscores a broader paradox within the literature: the simultaneous optimism about technological efficiency and apprehension about its socio-professional consequences. Apriliyanti and Ilham ¹⁸ attempt to reconcile this by emphasizing the enduring centrality of human agency in controlling and guiding intelligent systems. However, existing studies rarely move beyond descriptive accounts of perception to analyse how such attitudes concretely influence preparedness and service delivery outcomes.

The literature further identifies a wide range of competencies required for effective engagement with 5th IR technologies, including digital literacy, data analytics, collaboration, and critical thinking skills.^19–21 This aligns with the Future of Jobs Report, ²² which identifies analytical thinking, innovation, and active learning as essential competencies in technology-driven environments. Similarly, Demir and Ercan ²³ stress the importance of adaptive and problem-solving skills. While these frameworks provide a comprehensive outline of expected competencies, they rarely assess the extent to which librarians possess these skills. For example, Bokoh et al. ²⁴ emphasize digital information retrieval skills, yet Ekere et al ²⁵ provide evidence of low utilization of modern technologies in Nigerian libraries, suggesting a disconnect between expected competencies and actual practice. This gap highlights a broader issue in the literature: the lack of empirical rigour in linking skill requirements to measurable preparedness outcomes.

In addition, some studies have significantly noted the role of continuous learning and technological proficiency. Tella, et al. ²⁶ highlight the need for proficiency in digital asset management platforms, online research tools, and library management systems. Samuel and Moagi ²⁷ further extend this argument by emphasizing data analytics capabilities as essential for managing large volumes of information and deriving actionable insights. However, these studies largely assume the availability of institutional support for skill development, without critically examining the structural constraints that may hinder such efforts.

However, many studies have consistently identified barriers libraries and librarians face in the era of emerging technologies, including inadequate funding, outdated infrastructure, and unreliable power supply.^28–30 While these constraints are well-documented, there is limited analytical engagement with how they interact with individual competencies and organizational policies to shape preparedness. Furthermore, emerging concerns such as algorithmic bias and gender inequalities in AI systems^31,32 are acknowledged but insufficiently integrated into discussions on librarianship, thereby overlooking critical ethical dimensions of 5IR adoption.

Research gap and contribution of the study

From the foregoing review, it is evident that while there is a growing body of literature on 5th IR and librarianship, there are significant gaps in literature. Notably, there is a lack of studies that critically examine librarians’ preparedness as a holistic construct encompassing awareness, competencies, institutional support, and attitudinal factors within the Nigerian context. Existing studies either focus narrowly on awareness or provide fragmented insights into challenges without synthesizing these elements into a coherent analytical framework. Furthermore, there is limited empirical evidence that interrogates the interplay between technological awareness and actual readiness for information service delivery in the 5th IR era. The Nigerian context, in particular, remains underexplored in terms of how systemic constraints and skill deficiencies collectively influence librarians’ capacity to respond to emerging technological demands. This study, therefore, seeks to fill this gap by providing a comprehensive and analytical assessment of librarians’ preparedness for the 5th IR in Nigeria.

Methodology

This study adopted a descriptive survey design, which involves collecting data at a single point in time to assess the preparedness and awareness level of participants. This design is chosen to systematically describe the current state of preparedness towards information service delivery in the 5th IR among librarians. Given the increase in technology adoption in libraries, a descriptive survey design provides timely feedback on the preparedness level of librarians in the study for the 5th IR. The study targeted librarians in Nigeria. However, to protect the identity of participating institutions, their names were anonymized in the study. A convenience sampling technique was employed to select participants. The convenience sampling was considered appropriate given the exploratory and descriptive nature of the study, the dispersed distribution of librarians across Nigeria, and the absence of a comprehensive national sampling frame. In the Nigerian context, librarians are geographically scattered across the six geopolitical zone, and access to them is often mediated through professional networks and online platforms. Therefore, this approach was deemed necessary and suitable for this study because it allows the researchers to access respondents who were readily available and willing to participate, especially given the dispersed nature of librarians across the state and the limited time frame of the study. In addition, this technique facilitated the inclusion of a reasonable number of participants despite potential constraints such as work schedules and varying levels of internet connectivity for online participation. The primary instrument for data collection was a structured questionnaire. The questionnaire was divided into Sections A-E, which comprised demographic variables and research questions using a four-point Likert scale. To ensure content validity, the draft questionnaire was reviewed by two experts in Library and Information Science, who evaluated it for clarity, relevance, and alignment with the study’s objectives. Feedback from these experts led to refinements in wording, adjustment of ambiguous items, and improvement in scale consistency, thereby enhancing both the readability and conceptual accuracy of the instrument. A pre-test (pilot study) was conducted with 10 academic librarians from a university in Abuja, which was not part of the main study’s population. The purpose of the pilot was to test the instrument’s clarity, reliability, and ease of administration in a real-world setting. Based on feedback from the pilot participants, further refinements were made, such as simplifying technical terminology related to 5th IR and removing redundant questions. Internal consistency was confirmed using Cronbach’s Alpha, which yielded an overall reliability coefficient of 0.87, indicating high reliability of the instrument. ³³ The questionnaire was administered between July 10th and August 30th, 2025. In total, 402 librarians across the six geo-political zone completed and returned the questionnaire. To maximize participation, the researchers used an online distribution via Google Forms shared through professional WhatsApp groups like the Nigerian Library Association and, Certified Librarians of Nigeria and among others. Data collected for this study were analysed using both descriptive and inferential statistics. Descriptive statistics, including frequency counts, percentages, mean, and standard deviation, were used to summarize respondents’ demographic characteristics and to answer the research questions. Mean scores were used to determine the direction and magnitude of responses. To decide the region of acceptance and rejection, mean values greater than 2.5 were accepted, while mean scores less than 2.5 were rejected. In addition, inferential statistics were employed to test the formulated hypotheses. Multiple regression analysis was used to examine the joint and independent influence of demographic variables (age, gender, educational qualification, and years of experience) on librarians’ level of preparedness for the 5th IR. All hypotheses were tested at a 0.05 level of significance. This combination of descriptive and inferential statistical techniques provided a comprehensive understanding of the data and enabled both summarization and generalization of the study findings. In so doing, the first section of the Google Form contained a consent statement outlining the purpose of the study, the voluntary nature of participation, confidentiality measures, and the right to withdraw at any time without penalty. Participants indicated consent by checking an “I agree to participate” box before proceeding to the questionnaire.

Results

Table 1 presents results on the demographic information of the respondents. For their gender, it was revealed that 271 (67.4%) are female, which implies a slightly wider disparity in gender. For the age of the librarians, it was revealed that majority 135 (33.6%) fall between 50 years and above, followed by 134 (33.3%) fall between ages 41–40 years and the least falls between ages 20–30 years 30 (7.5%). For the years of experience, above 15 years, that is, 161 (40%) falls under this category, 11–15 years, that is, 83 (20.6%) followed while the least years of experience was between 1 and 5 years, that is, 76 (18.9%).

Table 1.

Demographic information of respondents.

S/N	Demographic Information	Frequency	%
1	Gender
	Male	131	32.6
	Female	271	67.4
2	Age
	20–30 years	30	7.5
	31–40 years	103	25.6
	41–50 years	134	33.3
	Above 50 years	135	33.6
3	Years of experience
	1–5 years	76	18.9
	6–10 years	82	20.4
	11–15 years	83	20.6
	Above 15 years	161	40
4	Highest educational qualification
	Bachelor’s degree	43	10.7
	Master’s degree	234	58.2
	PhD	121	30.1
	Others	4	1
5	Type of library
	Academic library	277	68.9
	Public library	12	3
	Special library	58	14.4
	School library	29	7.2
	National library	17	4.2
	Private library	9	2.2
6	Region of library
	South-West	190	47.3
	South-South	24	6
	South-East	49	12.2
	North-Central	95	23.6
	North-East	13	3.2
	North-West	31	7.7
	Total	402	100

The highest educational qualification of the librarians revealed that a master degree 234 (58.2%) was the most common qualification of the librarians’ studies, followed by Ph.D. 121 (30.1%) bachelor’s degree 43 (10.7%) while other degree has 4 (1%) respondents. The academic library had the highest representation, with 277 (68.9%) respondents, followed by the special library, with 58 (14.4%), while the least represented library was the private library, with 9 (2.2%) respondents. For the libraries by region, South-West libraries 190 (47.3%) have the highest representation, followed by North-Central. The North-East had the least representation, with 13 (3.2%) respondents.

Table 2 examined the level of awareness of the 5th IR among the librarians studied. The findings indicate that respondents were aware of automation trends in library services (=3.44; Std Dev = 0.558), understood digital transformation in libraries (=3.40; Std Dev. = 0.583), and were knowledgeable about artificial intelligence applications in libraries (=3.38; Std Dev = 0.630). They also demonstrated awareness of smart technology applications (Mean = 3.20; SD = 0.666), familiarity with Internet of Things (IoT) concepts (=3.16; Std Dev = 0.686), and understanding of the role of robotics in library services (=3.15; Std Dev = 0.714). Additionally, respondents showed awareness of the basic concepts of the 5th IR (=3.11; Std Dev = 0.749) and its distinction from the Fourth Industrial Revolution (=2.89; Std Dev. = 0.797). Overall, the average mean score of 3.21 suggests a notably high level of awareness of the 5th IR among the librarians surveyed.

Table 2.

Awareness of 5th Industrial Revolution.

S/N	Awareness to 5th IR	SA	A	D	SD	Mean	St.D
1	I am aware of automation trends in library services	188 46.8%	201 50.0%	13 3.2%	0	3.44	0.558
2	I understand digital transformation in libraries	181 45.0%	201 50.0%	20 5.0%	0	3.40	0.583
3	I am aware of artificial intelligence applications in libraries	186 46.3%	184 45.8%	32 8.0%	0	3.38	0.630
4	I am knowledgeable about smart technology applications	137 34.1%	208 51.7%	57 14.2%	0	3.20	0.666
5	I am familiar with Internet of Things (IoT) concepts	127 31.6%	218 54.2%	52 12.9%	5 1.2%	3.16	0.686
6	I understand the role of robotics in library services	130 32.3%	212 52.7%	52 12.9%	8 2.0%	3.15	0.714
7	I understand the basic concepts of 5th Industrial Revolution (5th IR)	124 30.8%	211 52.5%	54 13.4%	13 3.2%	3.11	0.749
8	I can distinguish between 4th IR and 5th IR	85 21.1%	208 51.7%	87 21.6%	22 5.5%	2.89	0.797
Weighted mean = 3.216

Key: SA = Strongly Agree; A = Agree; D = Disagree; SD = Strongly Disagree.

Table 3 presents the respondents’ level of preparedness for the 5th IR. The findings indicate that they were consistently open to learning and adopting unfamiliar ICT tools (=3.26, Std Dev. = 0.828). They also reported participating in digital literacy programmes (=2.96, Std Dev. = 0.867), using digital tools for library operations (=2.84, Std Dev. = 0.865), and utilizing online learning platforms (=2.84, Std Dev. = 0.859). In addition, respondents indicated that they implemented new technologies in their work (=2.80, Std Dev. = 0.851), engaged with digital library management systems (=2.78, Std Dev. = 0.841), utilized data analytics tools (=2.78, Std Dev = 0.882), and used cloud computing services (=2.77, Std Dev. = 0.958). They also attended technology-related training regularly (=2.66, Std Dev. = 0.860) and applied AI tools in their daily library routines (=2.59, Std Dev. = 1.003). With an overall mean score of 2.83, the results suggest that the librarians’ level of preparedness is moderately high.

Table 3.

Level of librarians’ preparedness towards 5th Industrial Revolution.

S/N	Level of preparedness	VLaE	LaE	LE	VLE	Mean	St.D
1	I am always opened to learning and using unfamiliar ICT tools	189 47.0%	140 34.8%	60 14.95	13 3.2%	3.26	0.828
2	I participate in digital literacy programs	109 27.1%	199 49.5%	61 15.2%	33 8.2%	2.96	0.867
3	I used digital tools for library operations (e.g. ChatGTP, Grammarly, Copy AI, Tableau, Research Rabbit, QuickChat etc)	101 25.1%	158 39.3%	121 30.1%	22 5.5%	2.84	0.865
4	I utilize online learning platforms (e.g. Coursera, Udemy, edX, FutureLearn, Alison, Google Classroom, etc)	97 24.1%	168 41.8%	113 28.1%	24 6.0%	2.84	0.859
5	I implement new technologies in my work	89 22.1%	168 41.85	121 30.1%	24 6.0%	2.80	0.851
6	I engage with digital library management systems	77 19.2%	188 46.8%	107 26.6%	30 7.5%	2.78	0.841
7	I utilize data analytics tools (e.g. Excel, Power BI, Tabeau, Python, SPSS etc.)	89 22.1%	170 42.3%	110 27.45	33 8.25	2.78	0.882
8	I use cloud computing services (e.g. Google Apps, OCLC, Ex-Libris, LibLime, Dropbox, etc)	101 25.1%	157 39.1%	96 23.9%	48 11.9%	2.77	0.958
9	I attend technology--related training regularly	63 15.7%	179 44.5%	120 29.9%	40 10.0%	2.66	0.860
10	I apply AI tools in my daily library routine	84 20.9%	139 34.6%	110 27.4%	69 17.2%	2.59	1.003
Weighted mean = 2.828

Key: VLaE = Very Large Extent; LaE = Large Extent; LE = Low Extent; VLE = Very Low Extent.

Decision Rule: If mean is 0.0-1.0 = Very Low Extent; 1.1-2.0 = Low Extent; 2.1-3.0 = Large Extent; 3.1-4.0 = Very Large Extent.

Table 4 shows the required competencies for effective information service delivery in the 5th IR. The result showed that the respondents were skills in information retrieval systems (=3.27, Std Dev. = 0.611), ability to operate library automation software (=3.19, Std Dev. = 0.720), use electronic resource management tools (=3.15, Std Dev. = 0.662), managing digital collections (=3.11, Std Dev. = 0.683), using digital preservation tools (=3.00, Std Dev. = 0.727), proficient in database management (=2.96, Std Dev. = 0.801), proficient in digital reference services (=2.94, Std Dev. = 0.827), skilled in digital content creation (=2.93, Std Dev. = 0.826), competent in metadata management (=2.85, Std Dev. = 0.741), and can operate virtual reality applications (=2.74, Std Dev. = 0.843). With the overall mean score of 3.014, the result suggests a high level of competency though advanced and emerging skill areas require further development to meet the demands of the 5th IR.

Table 4.

Required competencies for information service delivery in 5th Industrial Revolution.

S/N	Competencies	SA	A	D	SD	Mean	St.D
1	I am skilled in information retrieval systems	145 36.1%	222 55.2%	35 8.7%	0	3.27	0.611
2	I can operate library automation software	144 35.8%	195 48.5%	58 14.4%	5 1.2%	3.19	0.720
3	I can use electronic resource management tools	119 29.6%	229 57.0%	50 12.4%	4 1.0%	3.15	0.662
4	I can manage digital collections	114 28.4%	222 55.2%	62 15.4%	4 1.0%	3.11	0.683
5	I can use digital preservation tools	103 25.6%	202 50.2%	93 23.1%	4 1.0%	3.00	0.727
6	I am proficient in database management	108 26.9%	180 44.8%	102 25.4%	12 3.0%	2.96	0.801
7	I am proficient in digital reference services	101 25.1%	198 49.3%	79 19.7%	24 6.0%	2.94	0.827
8	I am skilled in digital content creation	98 24.4%	201 50.0%	78 19.4%	25 6.2%	2.93	0.826
9	I am competent in metadata management	80 19.9%	184 45.8%	134 33.3%	4 1.0%	2.85	0.741
10	I can operate virtual reality applications	71 17.7%	189 47.0%	109 27.1%	33 8.2%	2.74	0.843
Weighted mean = 3.014

Key: SA = Strongly Agree; A = Agree; D = Disagree; SD = Strongly Disagree.

Table 5 presents the challenges faced by librarians in preparing for the 5th IR. The findings indicated that budget constraints is the most prominent factor affecting technology adoption (=3.37, Std Dev. = 0.677). They also reported high cost of software licenses (=3.27, Std Dev. = 0.679), unstable power supply (=3.11, Std Dev. = 0.950), inadequate technical support (=3.09, Std Dev. = 0.720), insufficient hardware resources (=3.09, Std Dev. = 0.763), limited training opportunities (=3.05, Std Dev. = 0.722), the rapid pace of technological change (=3.00, Std Dev. = 0.772), unreliable internet connectivity (=2.96, Std Dev. = 0.826), lack of modern technological infrastructure (=2.93, Std Dev. = 0.907), and workload pressures (=2.91, Std Dev. = 0.827) were challenges encountered by the respondents. Overall, the data indicate that infrastructural, financial, and institutional barriers significantly hinder librarians’ ability to fully prepare for and engage with the technologies of the 5th IR.

Table 5.

Challenges librarians face in preparing for the 5^th Industrial Revolution.

S/N	Challenges	SA	A	D	SD	Mean	St.D
1	Budget constraints affect technology adoption	191 47.5%	174 43.3%	33 8.2%	4 1.0%	3.37	0.677
2	Software licenses are costly	152 37.8%	215 53.5%	26 6.5%	9 2.2%	3.27	0.679
3	Power supply is unstable	176 43.8%	125 31.1%	71 17.7%	30 7.5%	3.11	0.950
4	Technical support is inadequate	116 28.9%	215 53.5%	63 15.7%	8 2.0%	3.09	0.720
5	Hardware resources are insufficient	129 32.1%	189 47.0%	76 18.9%	8 2.0%	3.09	0.763
6	Training opportunities are limited	112 27.9%	204 50.7%	82 20.4%	4 1.0%	3.05	0.722
7	Technology changes too rapidly to keep up	112 27.9%	187 46.5%	95 23.6%	8 2.0%	3.00	0.772
8	Internet connectivity is unreliable	111 27.6%	182 45.3%	91 22.65	18 4.5%	2.96	0.826
9	My library lacks modern technological infrastructure	136 33.8%	118 29.4%	132 32.8%	16 4.0%	2.93	0.907
10	Work load affects learning new technologies	99 24.5%	187 46.5%	95 23.6%	21 5.2%	2.91	0.827

Key: SA = Strongly Agree; A = Agree; D = Disagree; SD = Strongly Disagree.

Hypotheses testing

H ₀ 1: There is no significant joint relationship between the demographic factors (Age, Gender, Qualification, Experience) and level of preparedness towards 5th IR

Table 6 presents the results of the regression analysis of the joint relationship between librarians’ demographic factors (Age, Gender, Qualification, Experience) and level of preparedness towards 5th IR. The finding revealed that F = 14.769 (indicating a robust model), and multiple regression correlation (R) of 0.360 (indicating a positive multiple correlation of the independent variables with the level of preparedness the dependent variable), and an Adjusted R² of 0.121. This implies that 12.1% of the variance in level of preparedness was accounted for by the demographic factors (Age, Gender, Qualification, Experience). The significant of the relationship between the independent variables (demographic factors) and dependent variables (level of preparedness) revealed by significant F ration (p < 0.05). This means the demographic factors (Age, Gender, Qualification, Experience) have a combined influence on the level of preparedness towards the 5th IR. Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected.

Table 6.

Joint relationship between demographic factors and level of preparedness.

R	R square	Adjusted R square	Std. Error of the estimate
0.360 a	0.130	0.121	6.33974

ANOVA
Model	Sum of squares	Df	Mean square	F	Sig.
Regression	2374.454	4	593.614	14.769	0.000 b
Residual	15956.342	397	40.192	​	​
Total	18330.796	401	​	​	​

^aDependent Variable: Level of Preparedness;

^bPredictors: (Constant), Age, Gender, Highest Educational Qualification, Years of Experience.

H ₀ 2: There is no significant independent relationship between the demographic factors (Age, Gender, Qualification, Experience) and level of preparedness towards 5th IR

Table 7 shows the individual relationship between the independent variable (demographic factors) and the dependent variable (level of preparedness). The individual relationship of the independent variables and the dependent variable are beta weights in the table, while the individual robustness of the beta weights is indicated by the significance of 0.05 level of the corresponding T values. The results show that Age (B = −0.488, t = −7.204, p < 0.05) had the strongest individual relationship with the level of preparedness. This was followed by years of experience (B = 0.245, t = 3.534, p < 0.05). This implies that the independent variables (Age, Years of Experience and Qualification) were the important predictor variable in the regression model compared to gender, which had no relationship. Thus, the null hypothesis that there is no significant individual relationship between the demographic factors and the level of preparedness is thereby rejected.

Table 7.

Individual relationship between demographic factors and level of preparedness.

Model		Unstandardized coefficients		Standardized coefficients	t	Sig.
		B	Std. Error	Beta
1	(Constant)	30.894	1.627	​	18.994	.000
	Gender	−.322	.687	−.022	−.468	.640
	Years of experience	1.434	.406	.245	3.534	.000
	Highest educational qualification	1.875	.550	.176	3.409	.001
	Age	−3.505	.487	−.488	−7.204	.000

a. Dependent variable: Level of Preparedness; Predictors: Gender, Years of Experience, Highest Educational Qualification, Age.

Discussion of findings

The findings of this study revealed that participating librarians in sampled institutions in Nigeria demonstrate a high level of awareness of technologies associated with the 5th IR, including automation, artificial intelligence, and digital transformation. This suggests that librarians are not only exposed to emerging technological trends but also possess a foundational understanding of their relevance to library operations. This finding aligns with the studies of Eiriemiokhale and Sulyman ¹¹ and Abayomi et al., ¹² who reported that librarians in Nigeria are generally aware of artificial intelligence and its applications in library services. Similarly, Ekwueme et al. ¹³ found that librarians exhibit substantial awareness of 5th IR-related technologies, particularly robotics and the Internet of Things. However, the current study extends these findings by indicating that although awareness is high, there are still gaps in deeper conceptual understanding, particularly in differentiating between successive industrial revolutions. This partially supports the assertion by Ekwueme et al. ¹³ that awareness does not necessarily translate into full comprehension or readiness. From the perspective of the Technology Readiness Index (TRI) theory, this high awareness reflects the dimensions of optimism and innovativeness, suggesting that librarians are positively inclined toward technological advancements.

The study further revealed that librarians exhibit a moderate level of preparedness for the 5th IR, indicating that while they are willing to engage with emerging technologies, their actual capacity to utilize these tools effectively is still developing. This finding corroborates the position of Ekwueme et al., ¹³ who noted that librarians have not fully integrated emerging technologies into their professional practices due to gaps in required skills. It also aligns with Ekere et al., ²⁵ who found low utilization of modern technologies among librarians despite increasing awareness. However, this finding contrasts with the study by Subaveerapandiyan et al., ¹⁵ which reported a high level of readiness among librarians in Zambia, suggesting possible contextual differences in technological infrastructure and professional development opportunities. The moderate preparedness observed in this study can be interpreted through the TRI framework as a balance between drivers (optimism and innovativeness) and inhibitors (discomfort and insecurity), where positive attitudes are present but are constrained by practical and systemic limitations.

In terms of competencies, the findings indicate that librarians possess strong foundational skills in areas such as information retrieval, electronic resource management, and digital collection management, which are essential for effective service delivery in a technologically driven environment. This supports the assertions of Thiruppathi, Ikenga and Sijde, and Jyotsna and Madhu,^19–21 who emphasized the importance of digital literacy, data management, and information retrieval skills for librarians in the evolving digital landscape. Additionally, the findings are consistent with Bokoh et al. ²⁴ who highlighted the need for proficiency in accessing and retrieving digital information. However, the study also reveals comparatively lower competence in advanced and emerging areas such as metadata management, virtual reality applications, and digital content creation. This suggests that while librarians are equipped with traditional and intermediate digital skills, they may not yet be fully prepared for more sophisticated technological demands of the 5th IR. This observation reinforces the argument by Oladokun and Bakare ³⁴ that librarians must continuously upgrade their competencies to remain relevant in a rapidly evolving technological environment.

The study also identified several challenges hindering librarians’ preparedness for the 5th IR, including financial constraints, high cost of software, unstable power supply, inadequate technical support, and limited training opportunities. These findings are in agreement with Ajani and Oladokun ²⁸ who identified financial challenges and digital inequality as major barriers to the adoption of emerging technologies in libraries. Similarly, Akande et al. ²⁹ and Alala et al. ³⁰ reported that inadequate funding, outdated infrastructure, and lack of skilled personnel significantly affect the integration of new technologies in library services. The issue of unstable power supply and unreliable internet connectivity further reflects the infrastructural challenges prevalent in developing countries, which can impede technological advancement. These challenges align with the inhibitory dimensions of the TRI theory (discomfort and insecurity) indicating that external constraints and uncertainties can negatively affect librarians’ readiness to adopt new technologies despite their positive disposition.

Furthermore, the findings on the relationship between demographic variables and preparedness revealed that demographic factors jointly influence librarians’ preparedness for the 5th IR. This suggests that characteristics such as age, experience, and educational qualification collectively play a role in shaping how librarians respond to technological changes. This finding is consistent with the TRI theory, which acknowledges that individual differences can affect technology readiness. However, when examined individually, age, years of experience, and educational qualification were found to significantly predict preparedness, while gender had no significant influence. This supports the findings of Huyer and Nunez ³² who argued that gender disparities in digital competencies are becoming less pronounced in professional settings. The lack of significant gender influence also reinforces the notion that technology readiness is more strongly determined by exposure, training, and experience rather than gender-based differences. On the other hand, the significant influence of age and experience suggests that younger or more experienced librarians may differ in their adaptability to technological innovations, which aligns with the view of Colby and Parasuraman ⁸ that individual traits and experiences shape readiness for technology adoption.

Conclusion

This study examined the preparedness of Nigerian librarians for 5th IR with particular focus on their awareness, level of preparedness, required competencies, challenges, and the influence of demographic factors. The findings clearly demonstrate that librarians possess a high level of awareness of emerging technologies associated with the 5th IR, reflecting a strong cognitive understanding and positive disposition toward technological advancement. This suggests that the profession is not disconnected from global technological trends and is intellectually positioned to engage with the evolving information landscape. However, despite this high level of awareness, the study revealed that librarians’ actual preparedness remains moderate. This indicates a noticeable gap between knowledge and practical application, where librarians are willing to embrace innovation but are constrained in fully integrating these technologies into their daily professional activities. The study further revealed that while librarians possess strong foundational competencies, particularly in information retrieval, electronic resource management, and digital collections, there are still deficiencies in more advanced and emerging skill areas required for optimal participation in the 5th IR environment. In addition, the study identified critical challenges that significantly hinder librarians’ preparedness. Prominent among these are financial limitations, inadequate technological infrastructure, unstable power supply, limited access to training opportunities, and the rapid pace of technological change. These constraints highlight systemic and institutional barriers that must be addressed to enable librarians to transition effectively into a more technologically driven service environment.

The study also established that demographic factors collectively influence preparedness, with age, experience, and educational qualification emerging as significant predictors, while gender showed no significant relationship. This indicates the importance of professional exposure, continuous learning, and academic advancement in shaping librarians’ readiness for technological change, rather than inherent demographic characteristics such as gender. In conclusion, the study reveals that participating librarians from the sampled institutions across Nigeria are on a promising path toward adapting to the demands of the 5th IR, as evidenced by their high awareness and positive disposition. However, this potential is yet to be fully realized due to moderate preparedness levels and persistent structural challenges. Bridging the gap between awareness and practical readiness will require sustained investment in capacity building, infrastructure development, and institutional support systems. Strengthening these areas will not only enhance librarians’ competencies but also ensure that libraries remain relevant, innovative, and responsive in an increasingly technology-driven information ecosystem.

Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations are proposed to enhance librarians’ preparedness for the 5th IR:

(1) Library management and administrators should prioritize continuous professional development by organizing regular training, workshops, and hands-on capacity-building programmes focused on emerging technologies such as artificial intelligence, data analytics, and digital library systems. This will help bridge the gap between awareness and practical application identified in the study.

(2) Government and policymakers should increase funding allocations to libraries to support the acquisition of modern technological infrastructure, including reliable internet facilities, updated hardware, and licensed software. Addressing financial and infrastructural constraints will significantly improve librarians’ ability to adopt and utilize 5th IR technologies effectively.

(3) Library schools and educational institutions should review and update their curricula to incorporate emerging technological competencies such as AI applications, data science, digital preservation, and virtual technologies. This will ensure that graduating librarians are better equipped with relevant and future-oriented skills.

(4) Professional bodies, such as the Nigerian Library Association and the Librarians’ Registration Council of Nigeria, should promote mandatory continuing professional education and certification programmes that emphasize digital competencies and technological readiness. They should also facilitate partnerships and knowledge-sharing platforms among librarians.

(5) Library management should create enabling work environments that encourage experimentation and innovation, including providing access to online learning platforms and allowing time for staff to engage in self-development activities. This will help improve practical engagement with new technologies. Aside this, individual librarians should take personal responsibility for their professional growth by actively seeking opportunities to learn and apply emerging technologies through online courses, webinars, and self-directed learning initiatives.

However, this study is subject to a number of limitations that should be considered when interpreting the findings. First, the use of a convenience sampling technique limits the generalizability of the results, as the sample may not adequately represent all categories of librarians across Nigeria, particularly those in underrepresented library types and regions. Given the uneven regional representation as shown in the survey, it is advisable that caution should be taken when making wide national generalizations. Second, the study relied on self-reported data collected through a questionnaire, which may be influenced by social desirability bias or respondents’ tendency to overestimate their awareness, competencies, and level of preparedness. As such, the findings may not fully reflect actual practice. Third, the cross-sectional nature of the study captures librarians’ preparedness at a single point in time and does not account for changes that may occur as technologies evolve or as librarians acquire new skills. Additionally, the competencies and variables examined in this study, while relevant, may not be exhaustive of all the skills required for effective participation in the 5th IR.

Following these limitations, future research should adopt more rigorous sampling techniques, such as stratified or random sampling, to ensure broader representation across different types of libraries and regions, thereby enhancing the generalizability of findings. There is also a need for longitudinal studies to track changes in librarians’ preparedness, competencies, and technology adoption over time, especially as the 5th IR continues to evolve. Further studies could incorporate mixed methods approaches, combining surveys with interviews or observational techniques, to provide deeper insights and reduce reliance on self-reported data. In addition, future research should explore other relevant variables not covered in this study, such as organizational culture, leadership support, and policy frameworks, which may influence technological readiness. Comparative studies across countries or regions would also be valuable in understanding contextual differences in librarians’ preparedness for the 5th IR.