Over the past three decades, there have been numerous attempts to quantify corruption and its consequences using a variety of methodologies and data sources. The majority of measurements have concentrated on perception-based indicators, which, in addition to exhibiting a high degree of subjectivity, represent a highly constrained approach to the phenomenon. The perception of corruption is of limited value in monitoring its evolution or in evaluating the effectiveness of anti-corruption efforts. This article presents an examination of some of the most influential measures of corruption, offering an assessment of their strengths and weaknesses and concluding with an introduction of the UNODC Statistical framework to measure corruption. This framework is presented as a tool for approximating the size of different types of corruption, monitoring the implementation of preventive measures, and evaluating government responses to this phenomenon.
United Nations. United Nations Convention against Corruption. New York: United Nations, 2004.
2.
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). Mechanism for the Review of Implementation of the United Nations Convention against Corruption. Vienna: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2010), Available from: https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/corruption/implementation-review-mechanism.html [Accessed 1 August 2024].
OECD. Anti-Corruption and Integrity Outlook 2024. Paris: OECD Publishing, 2024, Available from: https://doi.org/10.1787/968587cd-en. [Accessed 10 January 2025].
Countries in the Western Balkans including Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Serbia, but also Latvia, Ghana, Morocco, Nigeria in Africa, Afghanistan and Indonesia in Asia, Colombia and Mexico in Latin America have conducted National Statistical Surveys to measure experiences of corruption. Available from: https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/population-surveys.html [Accessed 10 January 2025].
10.
JohnsonJHechlerHDe SousaL,et al.How to Monitor and Evaluate Anti-Corruption Agencies.Bergen, NO: U4 Anti-corruption Resource Centre, 2011.
11.
Rose-AckermanS. The economics of corruption. Journal of Public Economics1975; 4: 187–203.
12.
HeywoodPaul M. Measuring corruption: perspectives, critiques, and limits. In: HeywoodPaul M (ed.) Routledge handbook of political corruption. London: Routledge, 2015, pp.137–153.
13.
SøreideT. Is it wrong to rank? A critical assessment of corruption indices. Working paper 2006:1, Chr. Michelsen Institute.
Mo Ibrahim Foundation. Ibrahim Index of African Governance. [online] Available at: https://mo.ibrahim.foundation/iiag [Accessed 1 September 2024].
22.
Anti-Corruption Policies Revisited: Global Trends and European Responses to the Challenge of Corruption (ANTICORRP) Available at: https://anticorrp.eu/ [Accessed 10 January 2025].
National Institute of Statistics and Geography (INEGI). National Survey of Government Quality and Impact, (ENCIG) 2011-2023 [online] Available from: https://www.inegi.org.mx/programas/encig/2023/
28.
National Institute of Statistics and Geography (INEGI). National Survey of Crime Victimization in Businesses, ENVE 2012-2022 [online] Available from: https://www.inegi.org.mx/programas/enve/2022/
United Nations General Assembly. Thirty-second special session. A/RES/S-32/1. Political Declaration: Our common commitment to effectively addressing challenges and implementing measures to prevent and combat corruption and strengthen international cooperation. 2021.
