‘Green exercise’ (GE) is physical activity while simultaneously being exposed to nature. GE comprises three physical components: the individual, the exercise and the environment, and one processes component encompassing a range of psychological and physiological processes. Previous research has consistently shown affective benefits of GE compared to equivalent non-GE. Investigating the possibility of optimum GE environments may help maximise health benefits. The aim of this study was to compare affective outcomes of GE participation between four different typical GE environments (beach, grasslands, riverside, heritage), and further examine influences of several physical component–related variables and one processes component–related variable, on these outcomes.
Method:
Participants (N = 331) completed questionnaires before and after a 5km run, at one of four parkrun event locations.
Results:
Self-esteem (Δ = 1.61, 95% confidence interval (CI) = (1.30, 1.93)), stress (Δ = −2.36, 95% CI = (−3.01, −1.71)) and mood (Δ = −5.25, 95% CI = (−7.45, −3.05)) all significantly improved from pre- to post-run (p < .05). Improvements in these measures were not significantly different between environments. Several component-related variables significantly predicted these improvements, accounting for 9% of self-esteem improvement, 1.6% of perceived stress improvement, and 9.5% of mood improvement.
Conclusion:
GE offers accessible provision for improving acute psychological wellbeing. Although nature-based exercise environments can facilitate affective outcomes, the overall type of nature may be less critical. Other characteristics of the individual, exercise and environment can significantly influence attainment of psychological GE benefits. However, the results support a greater importance of the processes component in attaining previously reported affective outcomes.
MallerCTownsendMSt LegarLHenderson-WatsonCPryorAProsserL. Healthy Parks, Healthy People: The Health Benefits of Contact with Nature in a Park Context. Burwood, Australia: Deakin University and Parks Victoria, 2008.
2.
MallerCTownsendMPryorABrownPSt LegerL. Healthy nature healthy people: ‘Contact with nature’ as an upstream health promotion intervention for populations. Health Promotion International2006; 21: 45–54.
3.
Royal College of Nursing (RCN). Going Upstream: Nursing’s Contribution to Public Health. Prevent, Promote and Protect (RCN Guidance for Nurses). London: RCN, 2012.
4.
PrettyJ. How nature contributes to mental and physical health. Spirituality and Health International2004; 5: 68–78.
5.
PrettyJGriffinMSellensM. Is nature good for you?ECOS – Quarterly Journal of the British Association of Nature Conservation2004; 24: 2–9.
6.
PrettyJGriffinMSellensMPrettyC. Green exercise: Complementary roles of nature, exercise and diet in physical and emotional well-being and implications for public health policy. CES Occasional Paper 2003-1, University of Essex, March2003.
7.
PrettyJPeacockJSellensMGriffinM. The mental and physical health outcomes of green exercise. International Journal of Environmental Health Research2005; 15: 319–37.
8.
YeungRR. The acute effects of exercise on mood state. Journal of Psychosomatic Research1996; 40: 123–41.
9.
ReedJOnesDS. The effect of acute aerobic exercise on positive activated affect: A meta-analysis. Psychology of Sport and Exercise2006; 7: 477–514.
10.
LaneAMLovejoyDJ. The effects of exercise on mood changes: The moderating effect of depressed mood. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness2001; 41: 539–45.
11.
BartholomewJBMorrisonDCiccoloJT. Effects of acute exercise on mood and well-being in patients with major depressive disorder. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise2005; 37: 2032–7.
12.
EkelandEHeianFHagenKCorenE. Can exercise improve self esteem in children and young people? A systematic review of randomised controlled trials. British Journal of Sports Medicine2005; 39: 792–8.
13.
FochtBC. Brief walks in outdoor and laboratory environments: Effects on affective responses, enjoyment, and intentions to walk for exercise. Research Quarterly for Exercise & Sport2009; 80: 611–20.
BodinMHartigT. Does the outdoor environment matter for psychological restoration gained through running?Psychology of Sport and Exercise2003; 4: 141–53.
16.
BowlerDEBuyung-AliLMKnightTMPullinAS. A systematic review of evidence for the added benefits to health of exposure to natural environments. BMC Public Health2010; 10: 456.
17.
Thompson CoonJBoddyKSteinKWhearRBartonJDepledgeMH. Does participating in physical activity in outdoor natural environments have a greater effect on physical and mental wellbeing than physical activity indoors? A systematic review. Environmental Science & Technology2011; 45: 1761–72.
18.
LiQOtsukaTKobayashiMWakayamaYInagakiHKatsumataM. Acute effects of walking in forest environments on cardiovascular and metabolic parameters. European Journal of Applied Physiology2011; 111: 2845–53.
19.
BrymerEDavidsK. Experiential learning as a constraint-led process: An ecological dynamics perspective. Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Learning2014; 14: 103–17.
20.
BrymerEDavidsKMallabonL. Understanding the psychological health and well-being benefits of physical activity in nature: An ecological dynamics analysis. Ecopsychology2014; 6: 189–97.
21.
BrymerEDavidsK. Ecological dynamics as a theoretical framework for development of sustainable behaviours towards the environment. Environmental Education Research2012; 19: 45–63.
22.
PrettyJPeacockJHineRSellensMSouthNGriffinM. Green exercise in the UK countryside: Effects on health and psychological well-being, and implications for policy and planning. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management2007; 50: 211–31.
23.
BartonJHineRPrettyJ. The health benefits of walking in greenspaces of high natural and heritage value. Journal of Integrative Environmental Sciences2009; 6: 261–78.
24.
BartonJPrettyJ. What is the best dose of nature and green exercise for improving mental health? A multi-study analysis. Environmental Science & Technology2010; 44: 3947–55.
25.
EkkekakisPPetruzzelloSJ. Acute aerobic exercise and affect. Sports Medicine1999; 28: 337–47.
26.
EkkekakisPParfittGPetruzzelloSJ. The pleasure and displeasure people feel when they exercise at different intensities. Sports Medicine2011; 41: 641–71.
27.
BanduraA. Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1986.
28.
GibsonJJ. The visual perception of objective motion and subjective movement. Psychological Review1954; 61: 304–14.
29.
AssaianteCMarchandARAmblardB. Discrete visual samples may control locomotor equilibrium and foot positioning in man. Journal of Motor Behavior1989; 21: 72–91.
30.
BrymerEGrayT. Dancing with nature: Rhythm and harmony in extreme sport participation. Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Learning2009; 9: 135–49.
31.
AkersABartonJCosseyRGainsfordPGriffinMMicklewrightD. Visual color perception in green exercise: Positive effects on mood and perceived exertion. Environmental Science & Technology2012; 46: 8661–6.
32.
BermanMGJonidesJKaplanS. The cognitive benefits of interacting with nature. Psychological Science2008; 19: 1207–12.
33.
HarteJLEifertGH. The effects of running, environment, and attentional focus on athletes’ catecholamine and cortisol levels and mood. Psychophysiology1995; 32: 49–54.
34.
KellerMCFredricksonBLYbarraOCôtéSJohnsonKMikelsJ. A warm heart and a clear head the contingent effects of weather on mood and cognition. Psychological Science2005; 16: 724–31.
35.
WhiteMSmithAHumphryesKPahlSSnellingDDepledgeM. Blue space: The importance of water for preference, affect, and restorativeness ratings of natural and built scenes. Journal of Environmental Psychology2010; 30: 482–93.
36.
TabachnickBFidellL. Using Multivariate Statistics, 5th edn.Boston, MA: Pearson, 2007.
RosenbergM. Society and the Adolescent Self-Image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1965.
39.
CohenSKamarckTMermelsteinR. A global measure of perceived stress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior1983; 24: 385–96.
40.
McNairDMLorrMDropplemanLF. Manual Profile of Mood States. San Diego, CA: Educational & Industrial Testing Service, 1971.
41.
McNairDMDropplemanLFLorrM. EdITS Manual for the Profile of Mood States: POMS. San Diego, CA: Educational & Industrial Testing Service, 1992.
42.
NisbetEKZelenskiJMMurphySA. The nature relatedness scale linking individuals’ connection with nature to environmental concern and behavior. Environment and Behavior2009; 41: 715–40.
43.
BiddleSJFoxKBoutcherS. Physical Activity and Psychological Well-Being. New York: Routledge, 2002.
44.
SchmittDPAllikJ. Simultaneous administration of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale in 53 nations: Exploring the universal and culture-specific features of global self-esteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology2005; 89: 623–42.
45.
RosenbergM. Conceiving the Self. Malabar, FL: Krieger, 1986.
46.
BlascovichJTomakaJ. Measures of self-esteem. In RobinsonJShaverPWrightsmanL (eds) Measures of Personality and Social Psychological Attitudes, 3rd edn.Ann Arbor, MI: Institute for Social Research, 1993, pp. 115–60.
47.
FoxKR. The effects of exercise on self-perceptions and self-esteem. In BiddleSJHFoxKRBoutcherSH (eds) Physical Activity and Psychological Well-Being. London: Routledge, 2000, pp. 88–117.
48.
CohenS. Perceived stress in a probability sample of the United States. In SpacapanSOskampS (eds) The Social Psychology of Health: The Claremont Symposium on Applied Social Psychology. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1988, pp. 31–67.
49.
HansenCJStevensLCCoastJR. Exercise duration and mood state: How much is enough to feel better?Health Psychology2001; 20: 267–75.
50.
GroveJRPrapavessisH. Preliminary evidence for the reliability and validity of an abbreviated profile of mood states. International Journal of Sport Psychology1992; 23: 93–109.
51.
IBM Corp. IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows. Armonk, NY: IBM Corp, 2010.
52.
PallantJ. SPSS Survival Manual – A Step by Step Guide to Data Analysis using SPSS for Windows. Berkshire: Open University Press, 2007.
53.
AltmanDGBlandJM. Statistics notes: The normal distribution. British Medical Journal1995; 310: 298.
54.
GhasemiAZahediaslS. Normality tests for statistical analysis: A guide for non-statisticians. International Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism2012; 10: 486–9.
StevinsonCHicksonM. Exploring the public health potential of a mass community participation event. Journal of Public Health2014; 36: 268–74.
57.
BartonJGriffinMPrettyJ. Exercise-, nature- and socially interactive-based initiatives improve mood and self-esteem in the clinical population. Perspectives in Public Health2012; 132: 89–96.
58.
WilliamsDMDunsigerSCiccoloJTLewisBAAlbrechtAEMarcusBH. Acute affective response to a moderate-intensity exercise stimulus predicts physical activity participation 6 and 12 months later. Psychology of Sport and Exercise2008; 9: 231–45.
59.
KwanBMBryanAD. Affective response to exercise as a component of exercise motivation: Attitudes, norms, self-efficacy, and temporal stability of intentions. Psychology of Sport and Exercise2010; 11: 71–9.
60.
KwanBMBryanA. In-task and post-task affective response to exercise: Translating exercise intentions into behaviour. British Journal of Health Psychology2010; 15: 115–31.
61.
FoxKR. The Physical Self-perception: Profile Manual. DeKalb, IL: Northern Illinois University Press, 1990.
62.
FoxKRCorbinCB. The physical self-perception profile: Development and preliminary validation. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology1989: 11: 408–30.
63.
HutchinsonJCTenenbaumG. Attention focus during physical effort: The mediating role of task intensity. Psychology of Sport and Exercise2007; 8: 233–45.
64.
LaCailleRAMastersKSHeathEM. Effects of cognitive strategy and exercise setting on running performance, perceived exertion, affect, and satisfaction. Psychology of Sport and Exercise2004; 5: 461–76.
65.
EllisNJRandallJAPunnettG. The affects of a single bout of exercise on mood and self-esteem in clinically diagnosed mental health patients. Open Journal of Medical Psychology2013; 2: 81–5.
66.
GuszkowskaMLangwaldMDudziakDZarembaA. Influence of a single physical exercise class on mood states of pregnant women. Journal of Psychosomatic Obstetrics and Gynecology2013; 34: 98–104.
67.
PlutchikR. A general psychoevolutionary theory of emotion. Emotion: Theory, Research, and Experience1980; 1: 3–33.
68.
ShaverPSchwartzJKirsonDO’ConnorC. Emotion knowledge: Further exploration of a prototype approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology1987; 52: 1061–8.
69.
WilsonEO. Biophilia. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984.
70.
NisbetEKZelenskiJMMurphySA. Happiness is in our nature: Exploring nature relatedness as a contributor to subjective well-being. Journal of Happiness Studies2011; 12: 303–22.
71.
HowellAJDopkoRLPassmoreH-ABuroK. Nature connectedness: Associations with well-being and mindfulness. Personality and Individual Differences2011; 51: 166–71.
72.
MartynPBrymerE. The relationship between nature relatedness and anxiety. Journal of Health Psychology. Epub ahead of print 2014November4. DOI: 10.1177/1359105314555169.
73.
CrocittoJA. Jogging: A holistic integrative experience. Journal of Humanistic Education and Development1982; 21: 58–64.
74.
KaplanRKaplanS. The Experience of Nature: A Psychological Perspective. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989.
75.
KaplanS. The restorative benefits of nature: Toward an integrative framework. Journal of Environmental Psychology1995; 15: 169–82.
76.
UlrichRSSimonsRFLositoBDFioritoEMilesMAZelsonM. Stress recovery during exposure to natural and urban environments. Journal of Environmental Psychology1991; 11: 201–30.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
