Clinical considerations of long-term oral corticosteroid use

Abenhaim L Leufkens HGM van Staa TP , et al. (2000a) Oral corticosteroids and fracture risk: relationship to daily and cumulative doses. Rheumatology 39(12): 1383–1389. DOI: 10.1093/rheumatology/39.12.1383.

Abenhaim L Leufkens HGM van Staa TP , et al. (2000b) Use of oral corticosteroids and risk of fractures. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research 15(6): 993–1000. DOI: 10.1359/jbmr.2000.15.6.993.

Ahmet A Liu D Ward L , et al. (2013) A practical guide to the monitoring and management of the complications of systemic corticosteroid therapy. Allergy, Asthma & Clinical Immunology 9(1): 30. DOI: 10.1186/1710-1492-9-30.

Beuschlein F Else T Bancos I , et al. (2024) European Society of Endocrinology and Endocrine Society Joint Clinical Guideline: diagnosis and therapy of glucocorticoid-induced adrenal insufficiency. European Journal of Endocrinology 190(5): G25–G51. DOI: 10.1093/ejendo/lvae029

Bharadwarj A Khan W Kannan S , et al. (2015) Corticosteroid-induced cutaneous changes: a cross-sectional study. Indian Journal of Pharmacology 47(6): 696-698. DOI: 10.4103/0253-7613.169583.

Bostwick JM Warrington TP (2006) Psychiatric adverse effects of corticosteroids. Mayo Clinic Proceedings 81(10): 1361–1367. DOI: 10.4065/81.10.1361.

Cole JL (2020) Steroid-induced sleep disturbance and delirium: a focused review for critically ill patients. Federal Practitioner 37(6): 260-267. Available at: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7357890/ (accessed 16 June 2025).

Conn HO Poynard T (1994) Corticosteroids and peptic ulcer: meta-analysis of adverse events during steroid therapy. Journal of Internal Medicine 236(6): 619–632. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2796.1994.tb00855.x.

NHS Inform (2024) Corticosteroids (steroids). Available at:www.nhsinform.scot/tests-and-treatments/medicines-and-medical-aids/types-of-medicine/corticosteroids-steroids/ (accessed 5 June 2025).

Cotlier E Urban RC (1986) Corticosteroid-induced cataracts. Survey of Ophthalmology 31(2): 102–110. DOI: 10.1016/0039-6257(86)90077-9.

Erskine D Simpson H. Exogenous steroids treatment in adults. Adrenal insufficiency and adrenal crisis – who is at risk and how should they be managed safely. Available at: www.endocrinology.org/media/4091/spssfe_supporting_sec_-final_10032021-1.pdf (accessed 27 June 2025).

George M Lincy J Sujith K , et al. (2017) Effect of corticosteroids on serum potassium levels in patients with obstructive airway disorders. International Journal of Health Sciences & Research 7(4): 429-432. Available at: www.ijhsr.org/IJHSR_Vol.7_Issue.4_April2017/62.pdf (accessed 31 March 2025).

Hodgens A Sharman T (2023) Corticosteroids. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2025 Jan. Available from: www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK554612 (accessed 21 February 2025).

Martin-Grace J Dineen R Sherlock M , et al. (2020) Adrenal insufficiency: physiology, clinical presentation and diagnostic challenges. Clinica Chimica Acta 505: 78–91. DOI: 10.1016/j.cca.2020.01.029.

Martindale. The Complete Drug Reference. Available at: www.medicinescomplete.com/log-in/#/content/martindale/1060-a8-k?hspl=corticosteroid (accessed).

Liu D Ahmet A Ward L , et al. (2013) A practical guide to the monitoring and management of the complications of systemic corticosteroid therapy. Allergy, Asthma, and Clinical Immunology 9(1): 30. DOI: 10.1186/1710-1492-9-30.

Mazziotti G Angeli A Bilezikian JP Canalis E Giustina A (2006) Glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis: an update. Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism 17(4): 144–9. DOI: 10.1016/j.tem.2006.03.009.

Morris D (2018) Steroid-induced diabetes and hyperglycaemia. Part 2: management. Diabetes & Primary Care 20(5): 183–7.

National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (2025) Cushing’s Syndrome. Available at: www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/endocrine-diseases/cushings-syndrome (accessed 5 June 2025).

Nicolaides NC Aikaterini PN Alexandra M , et al. (2018) Glucocorticoid therapy and adrenal suppression. Available at: www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK279156 (accessed 5 June 2025).

NICE (2024) Clinical knowledge summary. Corticosteroids – oral. Available at: https://cks.nice.org.uk/corticosteroids-oral (accessed December 2024).

National Osteoporosis Guideline Group, UK (NOGG) (2024) Clinical guideline for the prevention and treatment of osteoporosis.

Parapuram SK Tripathi BJ Tripathi RC , et al. (1999) Corticosteroids and glaucoma risk. Drugs & Aging 15(6): 439–450. DOI: 10.2165/00002512-199915060-00004.

Park SY Gong HS Kim KM , et al. (2018) Korean Guideline for the Prevention and Treatment of Glucocorticoid-induced Osteoporosis. Journal of Bone Metabolism 25(4): 195-211. DOI: 10.11005/jbm.2018.25.4.195.

Pazderska A Pearce SH (2017) Adrenal insufficiency – recognition and management. Clinical Medicine 17(3): 258–262. DOI: 10.7861/clinmedicine.17-3-258.

RCGP. Clinical topic guide: Musculoskeletal health. Available at www.rcgp.org.uk/mrcgp-exams/gp-curriculum/clinical-topic-guides#musculoskeletal (accessed 31 March 2025).

Veltri KT Mason C (2015) Medication-Induced hypokalaemia. P & T 40(3): 185-90. Available at: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4357351/ (accessed 16 June 2025).