Concussion has become a prevalent injury in the sport of American football, and its severity can be influenced by the mass of the impactor, velocity, compliance, and direction of impact. As a result, it is important to characterize how American football helmets perform against these impact characteristics. The purpose of this research is to examine how an American football helmet performs across velocities and impact angles which can occur in the sport of American football. The methods used a combination of Hybrid III headform impacts combined with a finite element modeling approach to find the brain deformation variables known to be associated with concussion. At the 9.5 m/s impacts, the brain deformation metrics showed an increase in risk of concussion. Also, the region of the brain with the largest magnitude deformation shifted with differing velocities when analyzed using maximum principal strain but not von Mises stress. The results indicate that impact conditions (location and velocity) can influence the regional brain strains.
McKeeACGavettBESternRA. TDP-43 proteinopathy and motor neuron disease in chronic traumatic encephalopathy. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol2010; 69(9): 918–929.
2.
BottiniGCorcoranRSterziR. The role of the right-hemisphere in the interpretation of figurative aspects of language—a positron emission tomography activation study. Brain1994; 117: 1241–1253.
3.
KarnathHOFerberSHimmelbachM. Spatial awareness is a function of the temporal not the posterior parietal lobe. Nature2001; 411(6840): 950–953.
4.
GoldbergIIHarelMMalachR. When the brain loses its self: prefrontal inactivation during sensorimotor processing. Neuron2006; 50(2): 329–339.
5.
WillingerRBaumgartnerD. Numerical and physical modelling of the human head under impact—towards new injury criteria. Int J Vehicle Des2003; 32: 94–115.
6.
ZhangLYangKHKingAI. A proposed injury threshold for mild traumatic brain injury. J Biomech Eng2004; 126: 226–236.
7.
KleivenS. Predictors for traumatic brain injuries evaluated through accident reconstruction. Stapp Car Crash J2007; 51: 81–114.
8.
BainACMeaneyDF. Tissue-level thresholds for axonal damage in an experimental model of central nervous system white matter injury. J Biomech Eng2000; 16: 615–622.
9.
MorrisonBIIICaterHLWangCC. A tissue level tolerance criterion for living brain developed with an in vitro model of traumatic mechanical loading. Stapp Car Crash J2003; 47: 93–105.
10.
ElkinBSMorrisonBIII. Region-specific tolerance criteria for the living brain. Stapp Car Crash J2007; 51: 127–138.
11.
YangYRaineA. Prefrontal structural and functional brain imaging findings in antisocial, violent, and psychopathic individuals: a meta-analysis. Psychiatry Res2009; 174(2): 81–88.
12.
PriceCJ. The anatomy of language: contributions from functional neuroimaging. J Anat2000; 197(3): 335–359.
13.
BraddickOJO’BrienJMDWattam-BellJ. Brain areas sensitive to coherent visual motion. Perception2001; 30(1): 61–72.
WennbergRATatorCH. National Hockey League reported concussions, 1986–87 to 2001–02. Can J Neurol Sci2003; 30(3): 206–209.
16.
CassonIRVianoDCPowellJW. Twelve years of National Football League concussion data. Sports Health2010; 2(6): 471–483.
17.
RousseauPPostAHoshizakiTB. The effects of impact management materials in ice hockey helmets on head injury criteria. Proc IMechE, Part P: J Sports Engineering and Technology2009; 223: 159–165.
18.
PostAGimbelGHoshizakiTB. The influence of headform circumference and mass on alpine ski helmet performance in laboratory tests. J ASTM Int2012; 9(4): 5.
19.
WalshESRousseauPHoshizakiTB. The influence of impact location and angle on the dynamic impact response of a hybrid III headform. Sports Eng2011; 13(3): 135–143.
20.
PostAOeurAHoshizakiTB. Examination of the relationship of peak linear and angular acceleration to brain deformation metrics in hockey helmet impacts. Comput Methods Biomech Biomed Engin2011; 16(5): 511–519.
21.
PostAOeurAHoshizakiTB. An examination of American football helmets using brain deformation metrics associated with concussion. Mater Design2013; 45: 653–662.
22.
PostAOeurAWalshES. A centric/non-centric impact protocol and finite element model methodology for the evaluation of American football helmets to evaluate risk of concussion. Comput Methods Biomech Biomed Engin. Epub ahead of print 12March2013. DOI: 10.1080/10255842.2013.766724.
23.
ThomasLMRobertsVLGurdjianES. Impact-induced pressure gradients along three orthogonal axes in the human skull. J Neurosurg1967; 26(3): 316–321.
24.
KleivenS. Evaluation of head injury criteria using a finite element model validated against experiments on localized brain motion, intracerebral acceleration, and intracranial pressure. Int J Crashworthines2006; 11(1): 65–79.
25.
Forero RuedaMACuiLGilchristMD. Finite element modelling of equestrian helmet impacts exposes the need to address rotational kinematics in future helmet designs. Comput Methods Biomech Biomed Engin2011; 14: 1021–1031.
26.
KimparaHIwamotoM. Mild traumatic brain injury predictors based on angular accelerations during impacts. Ann Biomed Eng2011; 40(1): 114–126.
27.
KendallMPostARousseauP. A comparison of dynamic impact response and brain deformation metrics of head impact reconstructions for three mechanisms of head injury in ice hockey. In: Proceedings of the IRCOBI conference, Dublin, 12–14 September 2012.
28.
KartonC. The effect of inbound mass on the dynamic response of the Hybrid III headform and brain tissue deformation. MSc Thesis, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada, 2012.
29.
KartonCHoshizakiTBGilchristMD. The influence of inbound mass on the dynamic response of the Hybrid III headform and brain tissue deformation. J ASTM Int, in press.
30.
PostAHoshizakiTBBrienS. Head injuries, measurement criteria and helmet design. In: HongY (ed.) Routledge handbook of ergonomics in sport and exercise. New York; London: Routledge Publishers, 2013, pp.399–412.
31.
PadgaonkarAJKreigerKWKingAI. Measurements of angular accelerations of a rigid body using linear accelerometers. J Appl Mech1975; 42: 552–556.
32.
HorganTJGilchristMD. The creation of three-dimensional finite element models for simulating head impact biomechanics. Int J Crashworthines2003; 8(4): 353–366.
33.
HorganTJGilchristMD. Influence of FE model variability in predicting brain motion and intracranial pressure changes in head impact simulations. Int J Crashworthines2004; 9(4): 401–418.
34.
RuanJ. Impact biomechanics of head injury by mathematical modelling. PhD Thesis, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, 1994.
35.
WillingerRTalebLKoppC. Modal and temporal analysis of head mathematical models. J Neurotrauma1995; 12: 743–754.
36.
ZhouCKhalilTKingA. A new model comparing impact responses of the homogeneous and inhomogeneous human brain. In: Proceedings of the 39th Stapp car crash conference, San Diego, CA, 9–10 November 1995, Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale PA, USA, pp.121–137.
37.
ZhangLYangKDwarampudiR. Recent advances in brain injury research: a new human head model development and validation. Stapp Car Crash J2001; 45: 369–393.
38.
KleivenSVon HolstH. Consequences of brain size following impact in prediction of subdural hematoma evaluated with numerical techniques. In: Proceedings of the IRCOBI conference, Munich, 18–20 September 2002, pp.161–172.
39.
ShuckLAdvaniS. Rheological response of human brain tissue in shear. J Basic Eng1972; 94: 905–911.
40.
KangHWillingerRDiawBM. Validation of a 3D anatomic human head model and replication of head impact in motorcycle accident by finite element modeling. In: Proceedings of the 41st Stapp car crash conference, Lake Buena Vista, Florida, 13–14 November 1997, Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale PA, USA. pp.329–338.
41.
HuHNayfehARosenbergWS. Modeling of human brain movability during impact. In: 5th international LS DYNA users conference, Southfield, MI, 21–22 September 1998. Livermore Software Technology Corporation.
42.
GilchristMDO’DonoghueD. Simulation of the development of frontal head impact injury. Comput Mech2000; 26(3): 229–235.
43.
GilchristMDO’DonoghueDHorganT. A two-dimensional analysis of the biomechanics of frontal and occipital head impact injuries. Int J Crashworthines2001; 6(2): 253–262.
44.
MillerRMarguliesSLeoniM. Finite element modeling approaches for predicting injury in an experimental model of severe diffuse axonal injury. In: Proceedings of the 42nd Stapp car crash conference (SAE paper no. 983154), 1998, 2–4 November 1998, Tempa AZ, USA. pp.155–166. Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale PA, USA.
45.
NahumAMSmithRWardCC. Intracranial pressure dynamics during head impact. In: Proceedings of the 21st Stapp car crash conference (SAE paper no. 770922), 1977. 19–21 October 1977, New Orleans, LA. Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale PA, USA.
46.
HardyWNFosterCDMasonMJ. Investigation of head injury mechanisms using neutral density technology and high-speed biplanar X-ray. Stapp Car Crash J2001; 45: 337–368.
47.
DoorlyMCGilchristMD. The use of accident reconstruction for the analysis of traumatic brain injury due to head impacts arising from falls. Comput Methods Biomech Biomed Engin2006; 9(6): 371–377.
48.
HuntTAsplundC. Concussion assessment and management. Clin Sports Med2010; 29: 5–17.
49.
PellmanEJVianoDCWithnallC. Concussion in professional football: helmet testing to assess impact performance—part 11. Neurosurgery2006; 58: 78–96.
50.
DumaSMManoogianSJBussoneWR. Analysis of real-time head accelerations in collegiate football players. Clin J Sport Med2005; 15(1): 3–8.
51.
BrolinsonPGManoogianSMcNeelyD. Analysis of linear head accelerations from collegiate football impacts. Curr Sports Med Rep2006; 5(1): 23–28.
52.
SchnebelBGwinJTAndersonS. In vivo study of head impacts in football: a comparison of National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I versus high school impacts. Neurosurgery2007; 60(3): 490–495.
