Researchers often disagree as to whether emotions are largely consistent across people and over time, or whether they are variable. They also disagree as to whether emotions are initiated by appraisals, or whether they may be initiated in diverse ways. We draw upon Parallel-Distributed-Processing to offer an algorithmic account in which features of an emotion instance are bi-directionally connected to each other via conjunction units. We propose that such indirect connections may be innate as well as learned. These ideas lead to the development of the Interactive Activation and Competition framework for Emotion (IAC-E) which allows us to specify when emotions are consistent and when they are variable, as well as when they are appraisal-led and when they are input-agnostic.
ArnoldM. B. (1960). Emotion and personality. Columbia University Press.
2.
AshbyF. G.RosedahlL. (2017). A neural interpretation of exemplar theory. Psychological Review, 124, 472. https://doi.org/10.1037/rev0000064
3.
AueT.FlyktA.SchererK. R. (2007). First evidence for differential and sequential efferent effects of stimulus relevance and goal conduciveness appraisal. Biological Psychology, 74, 347–357. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2006.09.001
AviezerH.HassinR. R.RyanJ.GradyC.SusskindJ.AndersonA., Moscovitch, M., & BentinS. (2008). Angry, disgusted, or afraid? Studies on the malleability of emotion perception. Psychological Science, 19, 724–732. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02148.x
6.
BarrettL. F. (2006). Solving the emotion paradox: Categorization and the experience of emotion. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 10, 20–46. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr1001_2
BowerG. H. (1992). How might emotions affect learning. In S. A. Christianson (Ed.),Handbook of emotion and memory (pp. 3–31). Erlbaum.
9.
BowerG. H.ForgasJ. P. (2000). Affect, memory, and social cognition. In EichE.KihlstromJ. F.BowerG. H.ForgasJ. P.NiedenthalP. M. (Eds.), Cognition and emotion (pp. 87–168). Oxford University Press.
10.
ColesN.LarsenJ.LenchH. (2019). A meta-analysis of the facial feedback hypothesis literature: Effects of facial feedback on emotion experience are small and variable. Psychological Bulletin, 145, 610–651. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000194
11.
CowenA. S.KeltnerD. (2017). Self-report captures 27 distinct categories of emotion bridged by continuous gradients. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 114, E7900–E7909. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1702247114
12.
CrivelliC.JarilloS.RussellJ. A.Fernández-DolsJ.-M. (2016). Reading emotions from faces in two indigenous societies. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 145, 830–843. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000172
13.
EhretP. J.MonroeB. M.ReadS. J. (2015). Modeling the dynamics of evaluation: A multilevel neural network implementation of the iterative reprocessing model. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 19, 148–176. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868314544221
EkmanP.LevensonR. W.FriesenW. V. (1983). Autonomic nervous system activity distinguishes among emotions. Science (New York, N.Y.), 221, 1208–1210. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.6612338
FreemanJ. B.AmbadyN. (2011). A dynamic interactive theory of person construal. Psychological Review, 118, 247–279. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022327
19.
FullanaM. A.HarrisonB. J.Soriano-MasC.VervlietB.CardonerN.Àvila-ParcetA.RaduaJ. (2016). Neural signatures of human fear conditioning: An updated and extended meta-analysis of fMRI studies. Molecular Psychiatry, 21, 500–508. https://doi.org/10.1038/mp.2015.88
20.
GendronM.LindquistK. A.BarsalouL.BarrettL. F. (2012). Emotion words shape emotion percepts. Emotion (Washington, D.C.), 12, 314–325. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026007
21.
GlöcknerA.BetschT.SchindlerN. (2010). Coherence shifts in probabilistic inference tasks. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 23, 439–462. https://doi.org/10.1002/bdm.668
22.
GrandjeanD.SchererK. R. (2008). Unpacking the cognitive architecture of emotion processes. Emotion (Washington, D.C.), 8, 341–351. https://doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.8.3.341
23.
GriffithsP. E. (2004). Emotions as natural and normative kinds. Philosophy of Science, 71, 901–911. https://doi.org/10.1086/425944
24.
HessU.BlaisonC.KafetsiosK. (2016). Judging facial emotion expressions in context: The influence of culture and self-construal orientation. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 40, 55–64. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10919-015-0223-7
25.
HintzmanD. L.LudlamG. (1980). Differential forgetting of prototypes and old instances: Simulation by an exemplar-based classification model. Memory & Cognition, 8, 378–382. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03198278
KisvárdayZ. F.TothE.RauschM.EyselU. T. (1997). Orientation-specific relationship between populations of excitatory and inhibitory lateral connections in the visual cortex of the cat. Cerebral Cortex, 7, 605–618. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/7.7.605
30.
KumaranD.McClellandJ. L. (2012). Generalization through the recurrent interaction of episodic memories: A model of the hippocampal system. Psychological Review, 119, 573–616. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028681
LenchH. C.FloresS. A.BenchS. W. (2011). Discrete emotions predict changes in cognition, judgment, experience, behavior, and physiology: A meta-analysis of experimental emotion elicitations. Psychological Bulletin, 137, 834–855. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024244
33.
LindquistK. A. (2013). Emotions emerge from more basic psychological ingredients: A modern psychological constructionist model. Emotion Review, 5, 356–368. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073913489750
MatsumotoD.HwangH. C. (2013). Assessing cross-cultural competence: A review of available tests. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 44, 849–873. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022113492891
37.
MaussI. B.LevensonR. W.McCarterL.WilhelmF. H.GrossJ. J. (2005). The tie that binds? Coherence among emotion experience, behavior, and physiology. Emotion (Washington, D.C.), 5, 175–190. https://doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.5.2.175
McClellandJ. L. (1981). Retrieving general and specific information from stored knowledge of specifics. In Proceedings of the third annual Conference of the cognitive science society, Berkeley, California (pp. 170–172).
40.
McClellandJ. L.MirmanD.BolgerD. J.KhaitanP. (2014). Interactive activation and mutual constraint satisfaction in perception and cognition. Cognitive Science, 38, 1139–1189. https://doi.org/10.1111/cogs.12146
41.
McClellandJ. L.RumelhartD. E. (1981). An interactive activation model of context effects in letter perception: Part I. An account of basic findings. Psychological Review, 88, 375–407. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.88.5.375
42.
McLeodP.PlunkettK.RollsE. T. (2006). The attraction of parallel distributed processing for modelling cognition. In BermudezJ. L. (Ed.), Philosophy of psychology (pp. 182–202). Routledge.
MoorsA. (2017). Integration of two skeptical emotion theories: Dimensional appraisal theory and Russell’s psychological construction theory. Psychological Inquiry, 28, 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2017.1235900
45.
NoahT.SchulY.MayoR. (2018). When both the original study and its failed replication are correct: Feeling observed eliminates the facial-feedback effect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 114, 657–664. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000121
46.
ÖhmanA.WiensS. (2003). On the automaticity of autonomic responses in emotion: An evolutionary perspective. In DavidsonR. J.SchererK. R.GoldsmithH. H. (Eds.), Series in affective science. Handbook of affective sciences (pp. 256–275). Oxford University Press.
47.
PankseppJ. (2004). Affective neuroscience: The foundations of human and animal emotions. Oxford University Press.
48.
PankseppJ. (2007). Neurologizing the psychology of affects: How appraisal-based constructivism and basic emotion theory can coexist. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 2, 281–296. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6916.2007.00045.x
49.
ParkinsonB. (2007). Getting from situations to emotions: Appraisal and other routes. Emotion (Washington, D.C.), 7, 21–25. https://doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.7.1.21
50.
PerfettiR. (1993). On the convergence of reciprocal discrete-time cellular neural networks. IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems I: Fundamental Theory and Applications, 40, 286–287. https://doi.org/10.1109/81.224306
51.
PlautD. C.McClellandJ. L. (2010). Locating object knowledge in the brain: Comment on Bowers’s (2009) attempt to revive the grandmother cell hypothesis. Psychological Review, 117, 284–288. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017101
52.
ReadS. J.MillerL. C. (2002). Virtual personalities: A neural network model of personality. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 6, 357–369.
53.
RumelhartD. E.HintonG. E.McClellandJ. L. (1986). A general framework for parallel distributed processing. Parallel Distributed Processing: Explorations in the Microstructure of Cognition, 1, 26.
54.
RumelhartD. E.McClellandJ. L. (1986). PDP Models and general issues in cognitive science. In D. E. Rumelhart, J. L. McClelland, & the PDP Research Group (Eds.), Parallel distributed processing: Experiments in the microstructure of cognition (Vol. 1). MIT Press.
SchererK. R. (1988). Criteria for emotion-antecedent appraisal: A review. In HamiltonV.BowerG. H.FrijdaN. H. (Eds.), Cognitive perspectives on emotion and motivation (pp. 89–126). Springer, Dordrecht.
SimonD.StenstromD. M.ReadS. J. (2015). The coherence effect: Blending cold and hot cognitions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 109, 369–394. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000029
63.
SmithC. A.EllsworthP. C. (1985). Patterns of cognitive appraisal in emotion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48, 813–838. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.48.4.813
64.
SuriG.GrossJ. J.McClellandJ. L. (2019). Value-based decision making: An interactive activation perspective. Psychological Review, 27, 153–185. https://doi.org/10.1037/rev0000164
65.
SusskindJ. M.LeeD. H.CusiA.FeimanR.GrabskiW.AndersonA. K. (2008). Expressing fear enhances sensory acquisition. Nature Neuroscience, 11, 843. https://doi.org/10.1038/nn.2138
66.
ThagardP. (2008). Hot thought: Mechanisms and applications of emotional cognition. Bradford Book, MIT Press.
67.
TracyJ. L.RandlesD. (2011). Four models of basic emotions: A review of Ekman and Cordaro, Izard, Levenson, and Panksepp and Watt. Emotion Review, 3, 397–405. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073911410747
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
