To understand human emotions we need, alongside appraisal, the concept of emergence (derivation from the expectations of relationships) and the concept of unfolding (of sequences that can be expressed as narratives). These processes can be seen in resentment, which has not been studied extensively in psychology. It is associated with envy, and it can be thought of as a kind of destructive anger. Such issues can be studied in works of literature: simulations of the social world in which emotions can be experienced by means of empathy. Shakespeare's Othello enables us to understand the emergence and unfolding of resentment in Iago, who is passed over for promotion and improvises a plan to destroy Othello. Iago's resentment is difficult to empathize with, and the play raises the question of whether we need to recognize in ourselves the capacity for reprehensible emotions.
Blair, J., Mitchell, D., & Blair, K. (2005). The psychopath: Emotion and the brain. Oxford: Blackwell.
6.
Bloom, H. (1999). Shakespeare: The invention of the human. London: Fourth Estate.
7.
Bradley, A.C. (1991). Shakespearian tragedy: Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, and Macbeth. London: Penguin (Original publication 1904).
8.
Caspi, A., McClay, J., Moffitt, T.E., Mill, J., Martin, J., Craig, I.W., et al. (2002). Role of genotype in the cycle of violence in maltreated children. Science, 297, 851-854.
Darwin, C. (1872). The expression of the emotions in man and animals . London: Murray.
11.
Elton, W. R., & Long, W. B. (Eds.). (1989). Shakespeare and dramatic tradition: Essays in honor of S. F. Johnson. Newark: University of Delaware Press.
12.
Farrant, B., Fletcher, J., & Maybery, M.T. (2006). Specific language impairment, theory of mind, and visual perspective taking: Evidence for simulation theory and the developmental role of language. Child Development, 77, 1842-1853.
13.
Freedberg, D., & Gallese, V. (2007). Motion, emotion and empathy in esthetic experience . Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 11, 197-203.
14.
Gallese, V., Keysers, C., & Rizzolatti, G. (2004). A unifying view of the basis of social cognition. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 8, 396-403.
15.
Goldberg, S., Grusec, J.E., & Jenkins, J.M. (1999). Confidence in protection: Arguments for a narrow definition of attachment. Journal of Family Psychology, 13, 475-483.
16.
Gottman, J.M. (1993). The roles of conflict engagement, escalation, and avoidance, in marital interaction: A longitudinal view of five types of couples. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 61, 6-15.
17.
Greenblatt, S. (1980). Renaissance self-fashioning. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
18.
Halliwell, S. (2002). The aesthetics of mimesis: Ancient texts and modern problems. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
19.
Jenkins, J.M., & Ball, S. (2000). Distinguishing between negative emotions: Children's understanding of the social-regulatory aspects of emotion. Cognition and Emotion, 14, 261-282.
20.
Jenkins, J.M., & Greenbaum, R. (1999). Intention and emotion in child psychopathology: Building cooperative plans. In P. D. Zelazo , J. W. Astington, & D. R. Olson (Eds.), Developing theories of intention: Social understanding and self control (pp. 269-91). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
21.
Johnson-Laird, P.N., & Oatley, K. (1989). The language of emotions: An analysis of a semantic field. Cognition and Emotion, 3, 81-123.
22.
Kermode, F. (2000). Shakespeare's language. London : Allen Lane.
23.
Marr, D. (1982). Vision. San Francisco: Freeman.
24.
Murphy, J.G. (2003). Getting even: Forgiveness and its limits. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
25.
Neu, J. (2000). Jealous thoughts. In A tear is an intellectual thing: The meanings of emotion (pp. 41-67). New York: Oxford University Press.
26.
Nickerson, R. (1999). How we know-and sometimes misjudge-what others know: Imputing one's own knowledge to others. Psychological Bulletin, 125, 737-759.
27.
Nietzsche, F. (1956). The genealogy of morals (F. Golffing, Trans.) . In The birth of tragedy and the genealogy of morals (pp. 147-299). New York: Doubleday (Original publication 1887).
28.
Oatley, K. (1999). Why fiction may be twice as true as fact: Fiction as cognitive and emotional simulation. Review of General Psychology , 3, 101-117.
29.
Oatley, K. (2000). The sentiments and beliefs of distributed cognition . In N. H. Frijda, A. S. R. Manstead, & S. Bem (Eds.), Emotions and beliefs: How feelings influence thoughts (pp. 78-107). New York: Cambridge University Press.
30.
Oatley, K. (2001). Shakepeare's invention of theater as simulation that runs on minds. Empirical Studies of the Arts, 19, 29-45.
31.
Oatley, K. (2004). Emotions: A brief history. Oxford: Blackwell.
32.
Oatley, K., Keltner, D., & Jenkins, J.M. (2006). Understanding emotions, (2nd ed.). Malden, MA: Blackwell.
33.
Parrott, W.G. (2000). The Psychologist of Avon: Emotion in Elizabethan psychology and the plays of Shakespeare. In B. Landau, J. Sabini, J. Jonides, & E. Newport (Eds.), Perception, cognition, and language: Essays in honor of Henry and Lila Gleitman (pp. 231-243). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
34.
Royzman, E.B., & Rozin, P. (2006). Limits of symhedonia: The differential role of prior emotional attachment in sympathy and sympathetic joy. Emotion, 6, 82-93.
35.
Scheff, T.J. (1979). Catharsis in healing, ritual, and drama. Berkeley: University of California Press.
36.
Scheler, M. (1961). Ressentiment (W. W. Holdhelm, Trans.). New York: Free Press (Original publication 1912).
37.
Shakespeare, W. (1997). The Norton Shakespeare. New York: Norton (Originally published 1623).
38.
Shay, J. (1995). Achilles in Vietnam: Combat trauma and the undoing of character. New York: Simon & Schuster.
Sorabji, R. (2000). Emotion and peace of mind: From Stoic agitation to Christian temptation. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
41.
Spinoza, B. (1955). On the improvement of the understanding, the ethics, and correspondence (R. H. M. Elwes, Trans.). New York: Dover (Original publication 1661-1675).
42.
Stein, N.L., Trabasso, T., & Liwag, M. (1993). The representation and organization of emotional experience: Unfolding the emotion episode. In M. Lewis & J. M. Haviland (Eds.), Handbook of emotions (pp. 279-300). New York: Guilford.
43.
Stubblebine, J. (1969). Giotto: The Arena Chapel frescoes. New York: Norton.
44.
Trabasso, T., & Chung, J. (2004). Empathy: Tracking characters and monitoring their concerns in film. Paper presented, January 23, at the Winter Text Conference, Jackson Hole.
45.
White, R. S. (Ed.). (1996). Hazlitt's criticism of Shakespeare. Lewiston, NY: Mellon.
46.
Wood, M. (2003). Shakespeare. New York: Basic Books.
