Impact of coach education and practical experience on performance gains in young elite karate athletes following an 8-week plyometric and agility training program
Restricted accessResearch articleFirst published online 2026
Impact of coach education and practical experience on performance gains in young elite karate athletes following an 8-week plyometric and agility training program
This exploratory, quasi-experimental study examined how coach educational background influences training-induced adaptations in young elite karate athletes. Forty-five national-level under-15 karatekas were assigned to three non-randomized groups based on their coach profile: sports instructor (School 1), university-trained sports teacher (School 2), or a combined supervision team (School 3). Each coaching unit independently designed an eight-week plyometric and agility program under standardized constraints, allowing the program characteristics to reflect their methodological expertise. Pre- and post-intervention assessments included anthropometry, muscular power, linear sprint time, change-of-direction (COD) speed, and dynamic balance. Data were analyzed using ANCOVA with baseline scores as covariates. Effect sizes were expressed as partial eta squared (ηp2) for between-group effects and Cohen's d for descriptive changes. ANCOVA revealed no significant group effects for BMI, body fat percentage, squat-jump, or 10-m sprint. Conversely, significant between-group differences favoring School 3 were observed in most key performance metrics (p < 0.01). School 3 demonstrated superior outcomes for muscular power (countermovement jump, drop jump, standing long jump, medicine-ball tests; ηp2 up to 0.67), linear sprint time (15-m sprint; ηp2 = 0.30), modified COD T-test (MCOD-T; ηp2=0.67), and Y-balance test - composite score (YBT-CS; ηp2=0.40). Post-hoc tests confirmed School 3 outperformed School 1 and School 2 with large effect sizes across these variables (e.g., MCOD-T: d = 3.59 vs. School 1; 15-m sprint: d = 1.63 vs. School 1). We conclude that integrating academic knowledge with sport-specific practical experience provides a stronger foundation for designing structured, progressive, and effective training programs that maximize positive performance adaptations.
HordvikMBeniS. Signature pedagogies of teacher education in physical education: a scoping review. Phys Educ Sport Pedagog2024; 31: 1–17.
2.
KinnerkPKearneyPEHarveyS, et al.An investigation of high-performance team sport coaches’ planning practices. Sport Coach Rev2023; 12: 253–280.
3.
WangZCaseyACopeE. Coach experiences of formal coach education developed by national governing bodies: a systematic review. Phys Educ Sport Pedagog2025; 30: 351–363.
4.
CassidyTPotracPRynneS. Understanding sports coaching: the pedagogical, social and cultural foundations of coaching practice. 4th ed. New York, NY: Routledge, 2023.
5.
SmithKBurnsCO’NeillC, et al.How to coach: a review of theoretical approaches for the development of a novel coach education framework. Int J Sports Sci Coaching2023; 18: 594–608.
6.
KabadayıMKaradenizSYılmazAK, et al.Effects of core training in physical fitness of youth karate athletes: a controlled study design. Int J Environ Res Public Health2022; 19: 5816.
7.
WexlerJSheltonASwansonE, et al.The development of a coaching model: challenges and implications for intervention research. Remed Spec Educ2026; 47: 153–164.
8.
SiedentopDHastiePVan der MarsH. Complete guide to sport education. 3rd ed. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2019.
9.
MincuME. Teacher quality and school improvement: what is the role of research?Oxf Rev Educ2015; 41: 253–269.
10.
ParkY. Integrating career education into physical education: insights from the Sports DreamCatcher initiative. J Phys Educ Sport2024; 24: 499–512.
11.
LatinoFRomanoGTafuriF. Physical education teacher’s continuing professional development affects the physiological and cognitive well-being of school-age children. Educ Sci2024; 14: 1199.
12.
CeredaF. Developing research skills in training sports professionals: a reflective approach. J Phys Educ Sport2023; 23: 1861–1870.
13.
CinarliFSAydogduOAydinY, et al.Maximal strength, sprint and jump performance in elite kumite karatekas. BMC Sports Sci Med Rehabil2025; 17: 8.
14.
Ojeda-AravenaAHerrera-ValenzuelaTValdés-BadillaP, et al.Relationship between explosive strength characteristics with change of direction speed in junior and cadet karate athletes. Isokinet Exerc Sci2022; 30: 29–38.
15.
BouguezziRSammoudSNegraY, et al.The effects of reverse nordic exercise training on measures of physical fitness in youth karate athletes. J Funct Morphol Kinesiol2024; 9: 265.
16.
XuYWangS. Sequencing effects of concurrent resistance and short sprint interval training on physical fitness, and aerobic and anaerobic performance of karate athletes. J Sports Sci Med2025; 24: 205.
17.
BrightTEHandfordMJMundyP, et al.Building for the future: a systematic review of the effects of eccentric resistance training on measures of physical performance in youth athletes. Sports Med2023; 53: 1219–1254.
18.
MarinhoDABarbosaTMLopesVP, et al.The influence of the coaches’ demographics on young swimmers’ performance and technical determinants. Front Psychol2020; 11: 1968.
19.
BradfordKPendergastDGrootenboerP. What is meant by ‘teacher quality’ in research and policy: a systematic, quantitative literature review. Educ Think2021; 1: 57–76.
20.
SsemugenyiF. Teaching and learning methods compared: a pedagogical evaluation of problem-based learning (PBL) and lecture methods in developing learners’ cognitive abilities. Cogent Educ2023; 10: 2187943.
21.
MessingSRüttenAAbu-OmarK, et al.How can physical activity be promoted among children and adolescents? A systematic review of reviews across settings. Front Public Health2019; 7: 341383.
22.
BreivikG. Skills, knowledge and expertise in sport. Sport Ethics Philos2016; 10: 217–221.
23.
Van de VenAHJohnsonPE. Knowledge for theory and practice. Acad Manage Rev2006; 31: 802–821.
24.
CollinetC. Quels savoirs scientifiques les enseignants d’EPS et les entraîneurs jugent-ils utiles?Rev Fr Pédagogie2005; 152: 43–58.
25.
CollinsLCollinsD. Professional judgement and decision making in adventure sports coaching: the role of tacit knowledge. J Sports Sci2016; 34: 1346–1354.
26.
SelimiELascuASerpielloF, et al.Exploring football coaches’ views on coach education, role, and practice design: an Australian perspective. PLoS One2023; 18: e0285871.
27.
CohenJ. Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. 2nd ed. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1988.
28.
Moreno-AzzeAPrad-LucasEFandos SoñénD, et al.Plyometric training’s effects on young male karatekas’ jump, change of direction, and inter-limb asymmetry. Sports2024; 12: 1.
29.
Ojeda-AravenaAHerrera-ValenzuelaTValdés-BadillaP. A systematic review with meta-analysis on the effects of plyometric-jump training on the physical fitness of combat sport athletes. Sports2023; 11: 33.
30.
World Medical Association. Declaration of Helsinki: ethical principles for medical research involving human subjects. Fortaleza: World Medical Association, 2013.
31.
JacksonASPollockML. Generalized equations for predicting body density of men. Br J Nutr1978; 40: 497–504.
32.
JacksonASPollockMLWardA. Generalized equations for predicting body density of women. Med Sci Sports Exerc1980; 12: 175–182.
33.
TayechAMejriMAChaouachiM, et al.Taekwondo anaerobic intermittent kick test: discriminant validity and an update with the gold-standard Wingate test. J Hum Kinet2020; 71: 229–242.
34.
TayechAMejriMAMakhloufI, et al.Reliability, criterion-concurrent validity, and construct-discriminant validity of a head-marking version of the taekwondo anaerobic intermittent kick test. Biol Sport2022; 39: 951–963.
35.
AlouiATayechAMejriMA, et al.Reliability and validity of a new taekwondo-specific change-of-direction speed test with striking techniques in elite taekwondo athletes: a pilot study. Front Physiol2022; 13: 774546.
36.
MakhloufITayechAMejriMA, et al.Reliability and validity of a modified Illinois change-of-direction test with ball dribbling speed in young soccer players. Biol Sport2022; 39: 295–306.
37.
MhenniTMichalsikLBMejriMA, et al.Morning-evening difference of team-handball-related short-term maximal physical performances in female team handball players. J Sports Sci2017; 35: 912–920.
38.
Ben HassenSNegraYUthoffA, et al.Reliability, validity, and sensitivity of a specific agility test and its relationship with physical fitness in karate athletes. Front Physiol2022; 13: 841498.
39.
StockbruggerBAHaennelRG. Validity and reliability of a medicine ball explosive power test. J Strength Cond Res2001; 15: 431–438.
40.
MhenniTSouissiATayechA, et al.The effect of Ramadan fasting on the morning-evening difference in team-handball-related short-term maximal physical performances in elite female team-handball players. Chronobiol Int2021; 38: 1488–1499.
41.
SchemiderEZieglerMDanayE, et al.Is it really robust? Reinvestigating the robustness of ANOVA against violations of the normal distribution assumptions. Methodology (Gott)2010; 6: 147–151.
42.
BlancaMJAlarcónRArnauJ, et al.Non-normal data: is ANOVA still a valid option?Psicothema2017; 29: 552–557.
43.
SawilowskySS. New effect size rules of thumb. J Mod Appl Stat Meth2009; 8: 26.
44.
CôtéJGilbertW. An integrative definition of coaching effectiveness and expertise. Int J Sports Sci Coach2009; 4: 307–323.
45.
RheaMRAlvarBABurkettLN. One versus three sets of resistance exercise: a meta-analysis to determine the dose response for strength. J Strength Cond Res2003; 17: 500–505.
46.
HuangHHuangWYWuCE. The effect of plyometric training on the speed, agility, and explosive strength performance in elite athletes. Appl Sci2023; 13: 3605.
47.
NaclerioFMoodyJChapmanM. Applied periodization: a methodological approach. J Hum Sport Exerc2022; 8: 350–366.
48.
BompaTBuzzichelliC. Periodization: theory and methodology of training. 6th ed. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2019.
49.
JeffreysI. Motor learning—applications for agility and change of direction. Strength Cond J2013; 35: 23–29.
50.
MarkovicGMikulicP. Neuromuscular adaptations to plyometric training. Sports Med2010; 40: 859–895.
51.
IssurinV. New horizons for the methodology and physiology of training periodization. Sports Med2010; 40: 189–206.
52.
YoungWMcDowellMScarlettB. Specificity of sprint and agility training methods. J Strength Cond Res2001; 15: 315–319.
53.
CushionCNelsonLArmourK, et al.Coach learning and development: a review of literature. Sport Coach Rev2012; 1: 16–34.
54.
SchmidtRATDL. Motor learning and performance: from principles to application. 6th ed. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2019.
55.
StoszkowskiJCollinsD. Sources, topics and use of knowledge by coaches. J Sports Sci2016; 34: 794–802.
56.
YuanQDengNSohKG. A meta-analysis of the effects of plyometric training on muscle strength and power in martial arts athletes. BMC Sports Sci Med Rehabil2025; 17: 12.
57.
Ramírez-CampilloRGallardoFHenriquez-OlguínC, et al.Effect of vertical, horizontal, and combined plyometric training on explosive, balance, and endurance performance of young soccer players. J Strength Cond Res2015; 29: 1784–1795.
58.
TurnerAComfortP. Advanced strength and conditioning: an evidence-based approach. 2nd ed. London: Routledge, 2022.
59.
PaulDJGabbettTJNassisGP. Agility in team sports: testing, training and factors affecting performance. Sports Med2016; 46: 421–442.
60.
ChaabeneHPrieskeONegraY, et al.Change of direction speed: toward a strength training approach with accentuated eccentric muscle actions. Sports Med2018; 48: 1773–1779.
61.
MuratovichSI. Principles of sports training. Multidiscip Multidimens J2024; 3: 86–90.
62.
FarrowDRobertsonS. Development of a skill acquisition periodisation framework for high-performance sport. Sports Med2017; 47: 1043–1054.
63.
DengNSohKGZaremohzzabiehZ, et al.Effects of combined upper and lower limb plyometric training interventions on physical fitness in athletes: a systematic review with meta-analysis. Int J Environ Res Public Health2022; 20: 482.
64.
JowettS. The coach-athlete relationship within a cross-boundary team of experts: a conceptual analysis. Int Rev Sport Exerc Psychol2024: 1–16.
65.
Martín-RodríguezABelinchón-deMiguelPRubio-ZarapuzA, et al.Advances in understanding the interplay between dietary practices, body composition, and sports performance in athletes. Nutrients2024; 16: 571.
66.
JaniczakADevlinBLForsythA, et al.A systematic review update of athletes’ nutrition knowledge and association with dietary intake. Br J Nutr2022; 128: 1156–1169.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
