Training interventions for improving shooting velocity in water polo players: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Abstract

Shooting velocity is a key performance variable in water polo, yet the effects of training interventions on this outcome have not been systematically synthesized. Therefore, this study aimed to systematically review and quantitatively synthesize the effects of training interventions on shooting velocity in elite water polo players. A systematic literature search was conducted in the PubMed, Embase, and Scopus databases up to February 28, 2026. Randomized controlled trials investigating the effects of training interventions on shooting or throwing velocity in water polo players were included. Effect sizes were calculated using Cohen's d, and a random effects model was applied. Heterogeneity among studies was assessed using Cochran's Q and I² statistics. Subgroup analyses were conducted according to gender and training type. The results showed that five studies with six effect sizes met the inclusion criteria. The meta-analysis revealed that training interventions significantly improved shooting velocity in water polo players (d = 0.41, 95% CI: 0.02–0.80, p = 0.040). The heterogeneity across studies was low (I² = 0%). The subgroup analysis showed that resistance training had a significant positive effect on shooting velocity (d = 0.66, 95% CI: 0.09–1.24, p = 0.023), whereas foam rolling interventions did not demonstrate significant improvements. No significant differences were observed between the male and female subgroups. In conclusion, training interventions improved the shooting velocity in water polo players, with resistance-based training showing the greatest beneficial effects. These findings highlight the importance of strength- and power-oriented training programs in enhancing shooting performance in water polo athletes.