Classifying the invisible game: Towards a structured taxonomy of off-the-ball behaviors in football

Abstract

Off-the-ball behaviors play a decisive role in football performance, underpinning space creation, defensive balance, and team coordination. However, current research remains conceptually fragmented, with inconsistent terminology and limited comparability across studies. This Perspectives article addresses these limitations by introducing a structured conceptual-terminological framework for the systematic classification of off-the-ball behaviors. The proposed framework is descriptive in nature and organized along four complementary analytical axes: Possession-Function, distinguishing tactical intent and possession context; Unit of Analysis, specifying the observational scale from individual players to team dynamics; Performance Dimension, capturing physical, tactical, or perceptual-intentional characteristics of behavior; Behavioral Type, differentiating positioning, maneuvering, and high-intensity runs. Each behavior is encoded through a taxonomic string combining these four dimensions, enabling precise classification and cross-study comparison. The analytical utility of the framework is demonstrated through the reclassification of recent empirical studies, illustrating how distinct analytical focuses correspond to specific taxonomic combinations. By establishing clearer analytical boundaries and a shared language, this framework supports cumulative knowledge building and facilitates interdisciplinary dialogue among researchers from different backgrounds, including sport science, data science, and behavioral research. It also provides a foundation for translating the “invisible” dimension of football into quantifiable and interpretable tactical performance indicators.