This study examined the effects of a 6-week ladder training program on sprint performance and selected kinematic parameters in prepubescent male and female track and field athletes. Twenty-four children (7.2 ± 1.0 years) were randomly assigned to either an experimental group (EXP, n = 10) or a control group (CON, n = 14). The EXP group completed ladder training twice weekly in addition to regular track and field practice, while the CON group followed traditional training only. Sprint performance over 15 meters and kinematic variables (stride length, frequency, and average velocity, along with joint angular kinematics and their asymmetry) were measured before and after the intervention. Significant group × time interaction effects (p < 0.05) were observed for the 0–5 m, 0–10 m, and total 15-m sprint performance, indicating improvements in the EXP group, particularly in the early acceleration phase. No significant group × time interaction effects (p > 0.05) were found for the 5–10 m and 10–15 m segments, or for any kinematic parameters. The present findings suggest that ladder training may enhance early-phase sprint performance in young athletes. This improvement is underpinned by individual variations in kinematic responses, such as adjustments in step length or step frequency, which are not fully captured at the group-average level.
AdigüzelSKarataşBYücelB. The impact of the eight-week high-intensity interval training implemented by the national track and field team on some motor skills by gender. J Edu Issues2021; 7: 589–599.
2.
de RuiterCJvan DieënJH. Stride and step length obtained with inertial measurement units during maximal sprint acceleration. Sports2019; 7: 02.
3.
HunterJPMarshallRNMcNairPJ. Interaction of step length and step rate during sprint running. Med Sci Sports Exerc2004; 36: 261–271.
4.
ChatzilazaridisIPanoutsakopoulosVBassaE, et al.Effects of age and sex on the kinematics of the sprinting technique in the Maximum velocity phase. Appl Sci2024; 14: 6057.
5.
SudlowAGalantinePDel SordoG, et al.Influence of growth, maturation, and sex on maximal power, force and velocity during overground sprinting. J Strength Cond Res2024; 38: 491–500.
6.
PapaiakovouGGiannakosAMichailidisC, et al.The effect of chronological age and gender on the development of sprint performance during childhood and puberty. J Strength Cond Res2009; 23: 2568–2573.
7.
BakerJReadPGraham-SmithP, et al.Growth and maturation in adolescent track and field athletes. Aspetar Sports Med J2024; 13: 250–255.
8.
EisenmannJCTillKBakerJ. Growth, maturation and youth sports: issues and practical solutions. Ann Hum Biol2020; 47: 324–327.
9.
SudlowAGalantinePDel SordoG, et al.Effects of maximal power and the force-velocity profile on sprint acceleration performance according to maturity status and sex. J Sports Sci2025; 43: 1319–1328.
10.
HaugenTSeilerSSandbakkØ, et al.The training and development of elite sprint performance: an integration of scientific and best practice literature. Sports Med-Open2019; 5: 44.
11.
MackalaK. Optimisation of performance through kinematic analysis of the different phases of the 100 metres. New Stud. Athl2007; 22: 7–16.
12.
KotzamanidisC. The effect of sprint training on running performance and vertical jumping in pre-adolescent boys. J Hum Mov Stud2003; 44: 225–240.
13.
MeyersRWOliverJLHughesMG, et al.Maximal sprint speed in boys of increasing maturity. Pediatr Exerc Sci2015; 27: 85–94.
14.
ChatzilazaridisIPanoutsakopoulosVPapaiakovouGI. Stride characteristics progress in a 40-M sprinting test executed by male preadelescent, adolescent and adult athletes. Biol Exerc2012; 8: 59–77.
15.
LetzelterS. The development of velocity and acceleration in sprints: a comparison of elite and juvenile female sprinters. New Stud Athl2006; 21: 15–22.
16.
ViruALokoJHarroM, et al.Critical periods in the development of performance capacity during childhood and adolescence. Eur J Phys Educ1999; 4: 75–119.
17.
ColyerSLNagaharaRTakaiY, et al.The effect of biological maturity status on ground reaction force production during sprinting. Scand J Med Sci Sports2020; 30: 1387–1397.
18.
KampmillerTVanderkaMSelingerP, et al.Kinematic parameters of the running stride in 7-to 18-year-old youth. Kinesiol Sloven2011; 17: 63–75.
19.
RumpfMCCroninJBOliverJL, et al.Vertical and leg stiffness and stretch-shortening cycle changes across maturation during maximal sprint running. Hum Mov Sci2013; 32: 668–676.
20.
KellerBA. State of the art reviews: development of fitness in children: the influence of gender and physical activity. Am J Lifestyle Med2008; 2: 58–74.
21.
CheuvrontSNCarterRDeRuisseauKC, et al.Running performance differences between men and women. Sports Med2005; 35: 1017–1024.
22.
MeroAKomiPVGregorRJ. Biomechanics of sprint running: a review. Sports Med1992; 13: 376–392.
23.
FrostGDowlingJDysonK, et al.Cocontraction in three age groups of children during treadmill locomotion. J. Electromyogr. Kinesiol1997; 7: 179–186.
24.
GrossetJFMoraILambertzD, et al.Voluntary activation of the triceps surae in prepubertal children. J. Electromyogr. Kinesiol2008; 18: 455–465.
25.
LazaridisSNBassaEIPatikasD, et al.Biomechanical comparison in different jumping tasks between untrained boys and men. Pediatr Exerc Sci2013; 25: 101–113.
26.
WeiRXChanZYZhangJH, et al.Difference in the running biomechanics between preschoolers and adults. Braz J Phys Ther2021; 25: 162–167.
27.
WdowskiMMNoonMMundyPD, et al.The kinematic and kinetic development of sprinting and countermovement jump performance in boys. Front Bioeng Biotechnol2020; 8: 547075.
28.
PanoutsakopoulosV. Development and sprint traininig. In: KotzamanidisC (ed.) Child, training, health. Thessaloniki: Kyriakidis Bros Publishers S.A, 2020, pp.185–214.
29.
RossALeverittMRiekS. Neural influences on sprint running: training adaptations and acute responses. Sports Med2001; 31: 409–425.
30.
GirardO. Asymmetry in sprinting: the myth of perfection and the reality of performance. J Sport Health Sci2025; 14: 101025.
31.
KeskinisIPanoutsakopoulosVMerkouE, et al.Examination of step kinematics between children with different acceleration patterns in short-sprint dash. Biomechanics2025; 5: 60.
32.
MeyersRWOliverJLHughesMG, et al.Asymmetry during maximal sprint performance in 11- to 16-year-old boys. Pediatr Exerc Sci2017; 29: 94–102.
33.
RumpfMCCroninJBMohamadIN, et al.Kinetic asymmetries during running in male youth. Phys Ther Sport2014; 15: 53–57.
34.
BissasAWalkerJParadisisGP, et al.Asymmetry in sprinting: an insight into sub-10 and sub-11 s men and women sprinters. Scand J Med Sci Sports2022; 32: 69–82.
35.
ExellTAGittoesMJIrwinG, et al.Gait asymmetry: composite scores for mechanical analyses of sprint running. J Biomech2012; 45: 1108–1111.
36.
ExellTIrwinGGittoesM, et al.Strength and performance asymmetry during maximal velocity sprint running. Scand J Med Sci Sports2017; 27: 1273–1282.
37.
NagaharaRGleadhillS. Asymmetries of kinematics and kinetics in female and male sprinting. J Sports Med Phys Fitness2023; 63: 891–898.
38.
PayneVGIsaacsLD. Human Motor Development: A Lifespan Approach. 9th ed. New York, NY: Routledge, 2017.
39.
Campos-VazquezMARomero-BozaSToscano-BendalaFJ, et al.Comparison of the effect of repeated-sprint training combined with two different methods of strength training on young soccer players. J Strength Cond Res2015; 29: 744–751.
40.
ParadisisGPBissasACookeCB. Changes in leg strength and kinematics with uphill-downhill sprint training. Int J Sports Sci Coach2013; 8: 543–556.
41.
PetrakisDBassaEPapavasileiouA, et al.Backward running: acute effects on sprint performance in preadolescent boys. Sports2020; 8: 55–65.
42.
AfonsoJDa CostaITCamõesM, et al.The effects of agility ladders on performance: a systematic review. Int J Sports Med2020; 41: 720–728.
43.
LeyvaWDWongMABrownLE. Resisted and assisted training for sprint speed: a brief review. J Phys Fitness Med Treatment Sports2017; 1: 555554.
44.
PetrakosGMorinJBEganB. Resisted sled sprint training to improve sprint performance: a systematic review. Sports Med2016; 46: 381–400.
45.
SinghDSinghS. Effects of vertical and horizontal plyometric exercises on running speed. Hum Mov2013; 14: 144–147.
46.
KotzamanidisC. Effect of plyometric training on running performance and vertical jumping in prepubertal boys. J Strength Cond Res2006; 20: 441–445.
47.
LupoCUngureanuANVaraldaM, et al.Running technique is more effective than soccer-specific training for improving the sprint and agility performances with ball possession of prepubescent soccer players. Biol. Sport2019; 36: 249–255.
48.
SobarnaAHambaliSSutiswoS, et al.The influence learning used ABC run exercise on the sprint capabilities. J Konseling Pendidik2020; 8: 67–71.
49.
BrantaCHaubenstrickerJSeefeldtV. Age changes in motor skills during childhood and adolescence. Exerc Sport Sci Rev1984; 12: 467–520.
50.
PrasetyoBSukamtiERPrabowoTA. A narrative review: how does ABC running affect speed improvement in young athletes. J. Adv. Sport Phys. Edu2025; 8: 14–18.
51.
SetyantokoMWidiastutiWHernawanH. The game-based ABC running exercise model for children ages 6-12 years. Budapest Int Res Critics Linguist Educ J2019; 2: 506–518.
52.
BassaELolaACMelliouA, et al.Agility ladder training combined with plyometric or multidirectional speed drills: short-term adaptations on jump, speed, and change of direction performance in young female volleyball players. Pediatr Exerc Sci2024; 36: 248–257.
RaviPKalimuthuDK. The effects of ladder training on speed of Egyptian high school boys students in Qatar. Int J Phys Educ Sports Health2019; 6: 19–22.
55.
Padrón-CaboAReyEKalénA, et al.Effects of training with an agility ladder on sprint, agility and dribbling performance in youth soccer players. J Hum Kinet2020; 73: 219–228.
56.
GozzoliCHSimohamedJEl-HebilA. IAAF Kids’ Athletics a team event for children. Monaco: International Association of Athletics Federations, 2006.
57.
ChuangCHHungMHChangCY, et al.Effects of agility training on skill-related physical capabilities in young volleyball players. Appl Sci2022; 12: 1904.
58.
WongDPChaouachiADellalA, et al.Comparison of ground reaction forces and contact times between 2 lateral plyometric exercises in professional soccer players. Int J Sports Med2012; 33: 647–653.
59.
FaulFErdfelderELangAG, et al.G*Power 3: a flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioural, and biomedical sciences. Behav Res Methods2007; 39: 175–191.
60.
NobariHAzarianSSaedmocheshiS, et al.Narrative review: The role of circadian rhythm on sports performance, hormonal regulation, immune system function, and injury prevention in athletes. Heliyon2023; 9: e19636.
ExellTAIrwinGGittoesMJ, et al.Implications of intra-limb variability on asymmetry analyses. J Sports Sci2012; 30: 403–409.
63.
ZifchockRADavisIHigginsonJ, et al.The symmetry angle: a novel, robust method of quantifying asymmetry. Gait Posture2008; 27: 622–627.
64.
Padrón-CaboALorenzo-MartínezMPérez-FerreirósA, et al.Effects of plyometric training with agility ladder on physical fitness in youth soccer players. Int J Sports Med2021; 42: 896–904.
65.
WuCXuYChenZ, et al.The effect of intensity, frequency, duration and volume of physical activity in children and adolescents on skeletal muscle fitness: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Int J Environ Res Public Health2021; 18: 9640.
66.
KooTKLiMY. A guideline of selecting and reporting intraclass correlation coefficients for reliability research. J Chiropr Med2016; 15: 155–163.
67.
CohenJ. Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers, 1988.
68.
ThapaRKSarmahBSinghT, et al.Test-retest reliability and comparison of single- and dual-beam photocell timing system with video-based applications to measure linear and change of direction sprint times. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part P J Sports Eng Technol2023. 10.1177/17543371231203440
69.
KuitunenSKomiPVKyröläinenH. Knee and ankle joint stiffness in sprint running. Med Sci Sports Exerc2002; 34: 166–173.
70.
Martín-FuentesIVan den TillaarR. Relationship between step-by-step foot kinematics and sprint performance. Int J Environ Res Public Health2022; 19: 6786.
71.
MouraTBMALemeJCNakamuraFY, et al.Determinant biomechanical variables for each sprint phase performance in track and field: a systematic review. Int J Sports Sci Coach2024; 19: 488–509.
72.
NoroKHiraiHOkamotoH, et al.Inter-limb asymmetry of equilibrium regulation in the legs of 10–11-year-old boys during overground sprinting. In: 43rd Annual international conference of the IEEE engineering in medicine & biology society. Guadalajara, Mexico: EMBC, 2021, pp.4787–4791. 10.1109/EMBC46164.2021.9630327
73.
RaviPKalimuthuD. The Role of Ladder Training in Enhancing Athletic Performance: A Focus on Explosive Power and Speed in Adolescent Students. Preprints2024. 10.20944/preprints202401.2098.v1
74.
PratamaNEMintartoEKusnanikNW. The influence of ladder drills and jump rope exercise towards speed, agility and power of limb muscle. J Sports Phys Educ2018; 5: 22–29.
75.
KaleMAcikadaC. Effects of stride length and frequency training on acceleration kinematic, and jumping performances. Sport Sci Rev2016; 25: 243–260.
76.
MamaliKPPanoutsakopoulosV. Acute effect of ladder exercises in 10 m flying start sprint performance and step kinematics in young female athletes. In: Collection of materials from the international scientific and practical conference “physical culture in university education world practice and modern trends”. Dnipro: DSUIA, 2023, pp.141–144.
77.
StoneMHHornsbyWGSuarezDG, et al.Training specificity for athletes: emphasis on strength-power training: a narrative review. J Funct Morphol Kinesiol2022; 7: 02.
78.
Van HoorenBCroixMDS. Sensitive periods to train general motor abilities in children and adolescents: do they exist? A critical appraisal. Strength Cond J2021; 42: 7–14.
79.
TymofiyevaOGaschlerR. Training-Induced neural plasticity in youth: a systematic review of structural and functional MRI studies. Front Hum Neurosci2021; 14: 497245.
80.
NagaharaRKanehisaHFukunagaT. Ground reaction force across the transition during sprint acceleration. Scand J Med Sci Sports2020; 30: 450–461.
81.
NagaharaRTakaiYHaramuraM, et al.Age-Related differences in spatiotemporal variables and ground reaction forces during sprinting in boys. Pediatr Exerc Sci2018; 30: 335–344.
