Evaluating the Tactical Critical Thinking Program (TPCT) in elite underwater rugby: Effects on tactical efficiency index and critical thinking skills

Abstract

This study examined the effects of the Tactical Programme for Critical Thinking (TPCT) on tactical performance and critical thinking (CT) in elite male underwater rugby (UWR) players. Twenty-four experienced players (mean age: 29.38 ± 7.11 years; playing experience: 10.86 ± 4.82 years) were randomly assigned to either a control (STR) or experimental (TPCT) group. Both followed identical physical, technical, and tactical training standards. Over 20 sessions (two per week), the TPCT group trained through core tactical principles of UWR, integrating guided reflection and collaborative decision-making to promote critical engagement with in-game situations. Tactical performance was evaluated using RUSTAC (Rugby Underwater Tactical Assessment Criteria), a validated observational tool developed for UWR that codes behaviours during game sequences, including spatial occupation, decision timing, and role consistency in both offensive and defensive phases. CT skills were measured using the Critical Thinking Measurement Index. Results showed that TPCT participants significantly improved tactical performance (p = 0.017; d = 0.81), while the STR group showed no significant changes. Both groups experienced slight, non-significant improvements in CT. These findings suggest TPCT may be effective for enhancing tactical performance in elite UWR athletes, although its direct effect on measurable CT remains inconclusive. Further longitudinal studies with larger samples are encouraged to assess the sustained cognitive impact of TPCT and its integration into high-performance settings. Practically, coaches may consider incorporating structured reflection and tactical questioning into training to deepen understanding and support decision-making under pressure.

Trial registration: Clinicaltrials.gov NCT06865287