Abstract
Talent identification (TI) programmes in sports, such as volleyball, often rely on subjective evaluations without formal guidelines, leading to inconsistent talent selection. While the Expanded Model of Talent Development (EMTD) is a widely adopted framework for TI, it lacks sport-specific criteria. The aims of this study are to elaborate on the EMTD by identifying key anthropometric, physiological, and skill characteristics for TI of adolescent volleyball players from the perspectives of elite coaches (i.e., national or international- level coaches), and to explore how biomechanics support coaches’ traditional TI methods. Data collection involved two online Nominal Group Technique (NGT) meetings with eight elite volleyball coaches. Quantitative analysis of coaches’ rankings and qualitative examination of transcripts were conducted. The coaches selected and consolidated nine key characteristics for TI in volleyball. These included three anthropometric characteristics (standing reach height, peak height velocity, and arm span), four physiological characteristics (vertical jump, speed, agility, and core strength/stability), and two skill characteristics (hand-eye coordination and perceptual skills/spatial awareness). Regarding biomechanics, the coaches’ perspectives ranged from scepticism to strong support. Some coaches advocated for low-cost field-based assessments (e.g., vertical jump, chalk tests), while others recommended advanced lab-based assessments (e.g., movement analysis and physical screening) to enhance efficiency, injury prevention, and objectivity in TI. These insights informed a two-tiered list of recommended assessments. Coaches should consider applying these tests to identify talented volleyball players. Sports biomechanics can assist in this process. Further research involving longitudinal tests is necessary to examine the effects of these characteristics over time.
Introduction
Talent identification (TI) programmes have become popular in high-level team sports due to the financial rewards of winning and the large investments needed to achieve success. 1 The main goal of TI programmes is to identify athletes with the potential for exceptional performance and provide them with an environment that supports their development and sports achievements. 1 However, imprecise decisions in TI can also have negative consequences for all stakeholders involved, such as increased dropout rates, reduced motivation, and misallocated resources or investments. 2 TI programmes target athletes across different age groups, including children, adolescents, and adults. This study focuses on adolescents as they are in a critical developmental phase marked by rapid growth and maturation, making it a pivotal period for skill acquisition and athletic development. 3
In 2013, the Differentiating Model of Giftedness and Talent (DMGT) was updated to the Expanded Model of Talent Development (EMTD). 4 The original DMGT provided a framework outlining the factors influencing giftedness and talent, while the EMTD expanded on this by describing how various competencies, including sports, develop from natural abilities divided into mental and physical domains. In the context of volleyball, the mental domain includes cognitive abilities, decision-making, and psychological resilience that influence game intelligence and adaptability under pressure. The physical domain, on the other hand, encompasses skill, anthropometric, and physiological characteristics which directly affect volleyball-specific actions. Although the EMTD offers a comprehensive framework, it lacks sport-specific criteria for precise TI. 4 Consequently, the current study extends the EMTD by strengthening its “Physical” category within the “Gifts” column, adapting it specifically to volleyball through the integration of volleyball-specific performance indicators. This adaptation focuses on identifying key characteristics within the anthropometric, physiological, and skill domains to improve the TI process for adolescent volleyball players. While cognitive and psychological traits in the mental domain of the EMTD are acknowledged as important in the broader TI process, this study focuses exclusively on the physical domain to allow for a more in-depth exploration within the scope of a single study.
To enhance the accuracy of TI, it is crucial to incorporate elite coaches’ perspectives as they play a significant role in the TI process. 5 However, research on expert perspectives regarding TI in adolescent volleyball players is limited. While research on expert perspectives in volleyball TI is limited, coaches’ views regarding TI have been explored in other sports. Qualitative studies in football6,7 and racquet sports 8 have demonstrated that consulting expert coaches facilitates the identification of sport-specific key anthropometric, physiological, and skill-related characteristics relevant to TI. These findings emphasise the relevance of expert input and highlight the value of extending such investigations to the context of volleyball.
The game of volleyball consists of six fundamental technical skills including passing, setting, spiking, blocking, digging, and serving. Block and spike skills have been identified as crucial factors for team success in volleyball since these are the core techniques for scoring. 9 Besides these technical skills, motor skills such as eye-hand coordination, depth perception, serve-reception and reaction time, have also been identified as key factors that differentiate talent in volleyball players. 10
In addition to skills, anthropometric characteristics such as height, 7 standing reach height, 10 limb length, 11 and body fat percentage 11 have demonstrated their capacity to differentiate between different performance levels of volleyball players. 12 Players with greater height, standing reach height and limb length generally have an advantage in playing above the net, particularly in attacking and blocking, where reach is critical. Additionally, a lower body fat percentage contributes to agility and quick directional changes, which are essential for defensive plays such as digging and lateral movements. By influencing these key aspects of the game, these anthropometric characteristics directly impact an athlete's overall effectiveness on the court.10–12 Ectomorph somatotype characteristics are frequently observed among volleyball players of national teams, 13 suggesting that excessive muscle mass may not be essential for this non-contact sport. However, paradoxically, endomorphic and mesomorphic characteristics have been found to be advantageous for specific positions. For instance, liberos and defensive specialists, who require a lower centre of gravity for effective digging and floor defence, may benefit from endomorphic traits. 11
Physiological characteristics like lower-body muscular power, 10 upper limb strength, 14 speed, and agility 10 have been demonstrated to provide advantages in both defensive and offensive manoeuvres during volleyball games. Additionally, contemporary research posits that anaerobic capacity can serve as a discriminating factor between players in elite leagues due to the sport's recurrent short bouts of high intensity. 12 In contrast, the relationship between aerobic capacity and volleyball performance remains inconsistent. 10 Advanced biological maturation has been associated with favourable anthropometric and physiological variables, although these advantages only appear in junior athletes and may diminish with chronological age. 15
Despite the scientific findings above, TI still often heavily relies on coaches’ experience and intuition, leading to inconsistent TI. 5 The reliability and objectivity of TI programmes can be significantly enhanced by integrating objective and validated measurements from the field of sports biomechanics. 16 Biomechanics offer data-driven insights into movement efficiency, force generation, and technical execution, offering a complementary tool to traditional TI methods. For instance, biomechanical analysis, such as proximal-to-distal sequencing in volleyball spiking, shows potential for aiding in TI. 16 Furthermore, the use of kinetic and kinematic variables measured by force platforms has proven to be a reliable tool for assessing jump performance that distinguishes between populations. 17 In other sports, biomechanical analysis has been recognised as valuable tool in TI, helping to identify movement patterns associated with elite performance. For example, studies in cycling have shown that assessing muscle typology can contribute to TI by indicating sprint performance. 18 In addition, research on ice hockey highlight the importance of assessing acceleration, speed, and the ability to repeat sprints, as these are crucial for high-level performance and TI. 19 The integration of these biomechanical tools into volleyball TI could refine talent selection by providing objective, quantitative assessments alongside traditional evaluations. Despite these promising techniques, their applications in assisting the TI remain limited, highlighting the need for further exploration and implementation in TI programmes. This study focused on gaining a deeper understanding of the characteristics under the anthropometric, physiological, and skill domains within the EMTD framework by leveraging the insights and opinions of elite coaches in volleyball. Appendix A provides a conceptual visualisation of this contribution, illustrating how the identified characteristics and associated biomechanics assessments expand on the physical domain of the EMTD. Accordingly, the aims of this study were twofold: (1) to elaborate on the EMTD by identifying key anthropometric, physiological, and skill characteristics and their corresponding assessments that are essential for identifying talented adolescent volleyball players from the perspectives of experienced elite coaches; and (2), to explore how sports biomechanics can support coaches’ traditional TI methods.
Methods
This study was conducted using the Nominal Group Technique (NGT), which is a mixed-method design that combines quantitative ranking of ideas and qualitative analysis. A description of the used NGT-method can be found in Appendix B. NGT was utilised for its ability to generate a wide range of ideas from participants, prioritise those ideas through individual rankings, and allow for in-depth discussions that explore participants’ subjective experiences and perspectives. 20 The prioritised ideas can then be transformed into actionable points that address the identified issues.
Participants
Eight elite volleyball male coaches aged 36–65 (mean 50, SD 11), an average of 26.5 (SD 12.6) years coaching experience in their countries, were recruited using a passive snowballing technique as the appropriate judgmental sampling method, considering the highly specific population of experts in the field of TI in volleyball. Coaches were selected based on their expertise in coaching volleyball. In this study, ‘elite’ refers to coaches with experience coaching at the national team or international level, and who have experience in identifying talented adolescent volleyball players. The recruitment process began with an experienced professional volleyball coach who had a connection to the researchers but did not participate directly in the following research phases to reduce confirmation and affinity bias and preconceived notions. This coach contacted individuals within their national and international network, who subsequently referred other coaches within their own networks, facilitating a targeted recruitment of relevant experts.
All interested coaches received an invitation email with detailed project information and consent forms. Coaches were eligible if they met the following criteria: (i) have coaching experience at the national or international level, (ii) have experience with TI of adolescent volleyball players, (iii) be able to communicate in English. All selected coaches received and completed the participant information statement and consent forms prior to the meeting, which outlined the purpose of the study, procedures, and their right to withdraw at any time without penalty. Additionally, coaches provided explicit consent for video recording of the meetings. Ethics approval was obtained by the university's Human Ethics Committee (reference number 2022/616) in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki prior to the study. This study adhered to ethical principles of voluntary participation, confidentiality, and informed consent to ensure the rights and well-being of the participants throughout the research process.
Data collection
In January and February 2023, two online 2-h group meetings were conducted, following a modified version of NGT as described by McMillan et al. (2014). 20 The aim of these meetings was to explore the characteristics that are most important to consider when identifying talented adolescent volleyball players from elite coaches’ perspectives. One researcher (E.B.) led the group discussion with two research assistants (S.L. and C.L.) who assisted with notetaking and ensuring the smooth operation of the virtual meeting. The decision to conduct two sessions was based on balancing the time availability of busy elite coaches and ensuring sufficient depth of discussion. Two 2-h sessions allowed for structured yet manageable engagement while maintaining participant attention and energy levels in an online setting. Additional sessions were considered but deemed less feasible due to logistical constraints.
Prior to the group meetings, the participants were sent an information video that outlined the research objectives, explained the structure of the online group discussions, and provided instructions for the preparatory task. In this preparatory task, coaches were asked to reflect in advance on four open-ended questions that would also be addressed during the group meeting: i) “What anthropometric characteristics and standardised assessments do you consider important to identify talented adolescent volleyball players?”, ii) “What physiological characteristics and standardised assessments do you consider important to identify talented adolescent volleyball players?”, iii) “What technical skills and standardised assessments do you consider important to identify talented adolescent volleyball players?”, and iv) “How can sport biomechanics help you to identify talented adolescent volleyball players?”.
During the group meetings, the same four questions served as the basis for discussion, allowing for the collection of key anthropometric, physiological, and skill characteristics, as well as recommended objective field-based and laboratory-based assessments. Both NGT-meetings followed the same four rounds of the NGT process. 20 In the first round, participants were given one minute to silently review and supplement their pre-recorded ideas. In the second round, participants took turns sharing one idea at a time in a round-robin format, with ideas recorded in a shared visual document, while duplication of ideas and discussions were avoided. The third round consisted of a group discussion in which each idea was briefly clarified to ensure shared understanding, after which the facilitator grouped overlapping ideas and revised the list in real time, with participant approval. In the final round, each participant independently ranked the ideas by importance using a points system, whereby the most important idea received the highest score (equal to the total number of ideas) and the least important received a score of one. This process was repeated within the domains of anthropometric, physiological, and skill characteristics, and participants were also asked to complete sub-rankings and provide elaboration on selected ideas. To maintain independence and avoid group influence, the rankings and elaborations recorded by the participants on their individual sheets were not shared with the others (Appendix B). The two-session design was chosen to balance feasibility, given participants’ limited availability, with the need for sufficient depth and rigour.
Data analysis
Nominal group ranking
Scores assigned to the ideas were recorded in Microsoft Office Excel spreadsheets. The first stage of analysis focused on identifying any anomalies or nuances within the data. The sum of scores and ranked priority were calculated for each idea, and the raw data was organised by calculating the relative importance using the equation described by McMillan et al. 20 : (score achieved for the item) / (maximum possible score) × 100. Details are described in Appendix B.
Qualitative analysis
The transcripts were read to familiarise with the data to develop a thematic analysis. Ideas were grouped into common major domains and subdomains that were compared with existing evidence for similarities and differences. In the final stage of qualitative analysis, the transcripts were analysed to describe the underlying rationale and discussion arising from the clarification phase. The researchers applied the secondary classification framework to analyse the transcripts. 20 The NVivo software (Release 1.7.1, Lumivero, Australia) was used to assist in coding and categorising the ideas, which were then compared to explore patterns and differences in participants’ rankings and elaborations.
Results
Participant characteristics
Twenty coaches were invited of whom eight male elite volleyball coaches consented to participate in this study. Table 1 presents an overview of the participants’ demographic characteristics.
Demographic characteristics of participants.
Note. ‘Profession’ indicates coaching in indoor or beach volleyball, ‘Longevity of experience’ specifies years of coaching, ‘Scope of experience’ denotes the level (International/National), and ‘Country’ shows coaching locations. Abbreviations used: M = male; P1-P8 = participant number.
Nominal group ranking
Across the sessions, coaches identified and ranked a total of 21 characteristics relevant for TI, encompassing six anthropological, eight physiological, and seven skill characteristics. To offer comprehensive insights, these characteristics were additionally ranked within the three domains, and detailed sub-rankings were conducted. (Appendix C).
The nine highest ranked characteristics, in descending order, were: vertical jump, speed, height, coordination, agility, peak height velocity (PHV), arm span, core strength/stability, and perceptual skills/spatial awareness (Figure 1(a)). These nine outcomes represent the three top ranked anthropometric characteristics, the four top ranked physiological characteristics, and the two top ranked skill characteristics. Thus, physiological characteristics dominated the overall rankings, with vertical jump and speed consistently prioritised.
Results ranking characteristics. Note. Results of the rankings retrieved from group discussions with elite volleyball coaches. (a) Ranked combined list of ideas, (b) Ranked anthropometric characteristics, (c) Ranked physiological characteristics, (d) Ranked skill characteristics, (e) Sub-ranking for height, (f) Sub-ranking for coordination. Relative importance was calculated using the equation: (score achieved for the item) / (maximum possible score) × 100. Characteristics in bold reflect the nine highest ranked characteristics.
Figure 1(b)–(d) show the top-ranked characteristics within each domain. Figure 1(e) and (f) show the sub-rankings completed by the coaches for two characteristics: height and coordination. These two characteristics were considered as fairly broad, so sub-rankings were conducted to provide more specific insights. Within the sub-ranking for the anthropometric characteristic of height, reaching height received the highest rank, and within the sub-ranking for the skill characteristic of coordination, eye-hand coordination received the highest rank.
Although consensus was generally strong, individual preferences varied slightly, particularly in prioritising skill over anthropometric attributes.
Biomechanics
Biomechanics was not explicitly ranked as a distinct category as it is a methodological approach to evaluate the physical performance indicators (i.e., anthropometric, physiological, and skill characteristics) by understanding how the body moves and functions, but it was discussed in relation to the key characteristics of TI. While some coaches expressed scepticism regarding its contribution to TI, others acknowledged its potential value and suggested both basic and advanced assessments. Basic, field-based tests, such as chalk on a wall to measure jump height, were considered practical and repeatable. In contrast, advanced testing methods were proposed to enhance the collection of qualitative data on athletes. Techniques such as movement analysis across the court and video analyses were identified as useful tools for evaluating efficiency and effectiveness. Additionally, the use of standardised physical screenings to assess load management, core strength and general injury risk was regarded as beneficial for refining the TI processes.
Qualitative analysis
Qualitative analysis identified four major domains that align with our research questions: anthropometric, physiological, and skill characteristics, as well as the role of biomechanics. The coding process further revealed several dominant themes within each of these domains. Specifically, within the domain of anthropometric characteristics, two subdomains emerged: maturation and anthropometry. In the domain of physiological characteristics, three subdomains were identified: speed/agility, vertical jump, and core functionality. For the domain of skill characteristics, two subdomains emerged: coordination and perceptual skills. Lastly, within the domain of biomechanics, two subdomains were identified: basic testing and advanced testing. Illustrative quotations for each subdomain are provided in Table 2, offering further insight into these findings.
Selected illustrative quotations.
Note: Information in italics indicates the participant number.
In summary, results show a clear emphasis among coaches on physiological characteristics, particularly vertical jump and speed, for early TI. While skill traits were recognised, they were often considered trainable rather than innate, explaining their relatively lower rankings. Anthropometric features like height and arm span were valued for immediate impact on game play but often considered in conjunction with physical capacity. Biomechanics was seen as supportive rather than central to early-stage TI, especially given the practical constraints of most testing environments.
Discussion
The objectives of this study were twofold: to elaborate on the EMTD by identifying the essential characteristics for TI in volleyball as perceived by elite coaches, and to provide an overview of recommended assessments aligned with existing evidence, leveraging the expertise of biomechanists to support coaches’ traditional TI methods.
Essential characteristics for talent identification in volleyball
Nine essential characteristics for TI in volleyball were identified across three domains - anthropometric, physiological, skill characteristics - through two group meetings with elite volleyball coaches: vertical jump, speed, height, coordination, agility, peak height velocity (PHV), arm span, core strength/stability, and perceptual skills/spatial awareness. These criteria are encapsulated within a triangle-shaped framework that elaborates on the physical domains of the EMTD, with traits influenced by genetic predispositions at the base and skills amenable to improvement through training at the apex (Figure 2). To our knowledge, one previous study also developed a TI framework that ranks characteristics based on coaches’ insights, using a questionnaire to rank a selection of anthropometric, psychological, physiological, and skill characteristics. 21 Although the psychological attributes in their model fell outside the scope of the present study, their framework shows substantial overlap regarding anthropometric and physiological characteristics such as height, arm span, agility, and (leg) power. However, unlike the present findings, their highest-ranked characteristics also includes volleyball-specific skills such as spike and serve among the top characteristics. While such volleyball-specific skills were also mentioned during the NGT-meetings, they were not prioritised within the final top nine. Instead, the open-ended nature of the methodology facilitated the identification of core strength/stability as well as perceptual skills, which were not included as ranking options in Noori and Sadeghi's structured questionnaire. This suggests that methodological design may influence the breadth and type of characteristics identified in talent identification research.
Recommended assessment criteria for talent identification in volleyball. Note. The asterisk indicates consistency with previous model.
Anthropometric characteristics
The significance of anthropometry and maturation in identifying talented volleyball players was exemplified by the top three anthropometric characteristics: reaching height, PHV, and arm span.
Among these, the coaches emphasised that reaching height, rather than vertical height, is the most relevant in volleyball. One coach stated, “You are obviously playing the ball with your hands”, underscoring the importance of arm reach in volleyball. Furthermore, coaches considered reaching height crucial for achieving effective attacking and blocking. These findings align with previous research showing that taller players exhibit heightened attacking efficiency and enhanced blocking capabilities. 22 This advantage is largely attributed to their ability to contact the ball at a higher point above the net generating more downward force and power in their attacks, which makes it challenging for the opposing team to defend. Additionally, a greater reach also provides players with a wider range of hitting angles, making it more difficult for blockers to anticipate and defend against their attacks. 23 In blocking, a greater reach height allows players to reach higher, reducing the attacker's available hitting angles and creating a stronger defensive barrier. 23
In addition to reaching height, PHV, a measure of growth status, was identified by the coaches as a potential beneficial anthropometric characteristic for players who are considered tall for their age. This finding partially aligns existing research, which presents conflicting results regarding the relationship between PHV and performance. 24 On the one hand, early developers are often taller than the late developers, which enhances their physical presence on the court and allows them more time to refine their skills and adapt their technique to their changing body. On the other hand, late-maturing individuals may have an advantage due to a longer period of more gradual growth, leading to a higher adult stature and improved skill refinement alongside their changing body proportions.
Finally, the importance of arm span was emphasised by the coaches as another key anthropometric characteristics. One coach remarked that they prefer athletes with longer arms, stating, “I like athletes with longer arms, because they are faster at hitting”. Another coach added that a larger arm span contributes to better court skills, saying “A bigger arm span is an advantage on court skills as well”. These insights align with previous research, which demonstrated the use of arm span to discriminate between playing levels. 8 Although research on the underlying mechanisms remains limited, one study by Das et al. supports notion that a greater arm span contributes to increased velocity in both serve and attack, due to the greater radius of rotation, resulting in greater linear velocity. 25
Physiological characteristics
Building on the anthropometric advantages discussed earlier, the coaches also emphasised the importance of physiological characteristics in TI in volleyball. Among these physiological characteristics, coaches prioritised vertical jump, speed, agility, and core strength/stability.
Vertical jump was regarded as essential to “contact the ball as high as we can when we attack”, as one coach explained. This corresponds to findings that jump height is a performance determinant in volleyball.23,26 Moreover, one coach suggested that vertical jump could serve as a proxy for muscle composition, saying, “vertical jump is a rough indicator of muscle composition: it gives you a vague idea of fast twitch”. This perspective is supported by research linking jump height and Type II fibre percentage in well-trained athletes. 27
In addition to vertical jump, enhanced agility and speed were also emphasised for their importance in achieving swift and seamless transition in movement direction and court coverage. One coach highlighted this by saying, “you have to move quickly to intercept a moving object which is moving extremely quickly at times”. This aligns with previous research showing that agility and speed are key factors in distinguishing between Australian junior volleyball players. 10 Moreover, this is consistent with studies demonstrating the significance of speed and agility in efficient court coverage and quick direction changes in response to the ball's and opponents’ movements. 28
Complementing agility and speed, the importance of core strength and stability was strongly emphasised due to its role in biomechanical efficiency, injury prevention, and pain reduction. Coaches linked strong core control to the ability to make “really small changes really quickly” and to “produce power and speed”. While specific research on core functionality in volleyball is limited, these findings resonate previous studies suggesting that a strong and stable core contributes to better balance, enhancing the ability to control body position and reducing the risk of falls or stumbles during play. 29
Skill characteristics
In addition to the physical and physiological characteristics, coaches also prioritised two key skill characteristics for TI in volleyball: coordination and spatial awareness/perceptual skills. Motor coordination, especially eye-hand coordination, was identified as crucial with one coach stating, “we use our forearms for the sport, so just that understanding of being able to connect their arm to the ball”. This reflects previous research indicating that elite female volleyballers exhibit superior motor coordination compared to average-level players, likely due to the skill-based nature of the sport. 30 However, limited research has been conducted specifically on hand-eye coordination in volleyball and other (team) sports.
Beyond coordination, spatial awareness and perceptual skills were also highlighted as essential characteristics of talented volleyball players. Coaches defined these skills as “the ability to read and understand the situation” and “the awareness of where to be in relation to the ball”. These findings echo literature suggesting that anticipation and situational awareness are more prevalent in volleyball players compared to non-athletes and sprinters. 31 This can be attributed to the fast-paced and unpredictable nature of volleyball, which demands heightened awareness and quick decision-making.
Role of biomechanics in talent identification: recommended assessments
Finally, the coaches’ perspectives on utilising biomechanics for TI in volleyball revealed two subdomains: basic testing and advanced testing. Some coaches expressed scepticism regarding the impact of biomechanics on the TI process, with one participant questioning: “I don’t see how biomechanics will necessarily help the screen process so much at this level”. Two other participants echoed this sentiment, emphasising their reliance on subjective assessments like the coach's eye. These statements highlight a common tendency in TI across sports, where experiential intuition often prevails over objective data, an issue that is also observed in sports like football, where coaches frequently prioritise subjective judgment over biomechanical insights.5,32
On the other hand, three coaches recognised the value of basic testing equipment that could be easily repeated across the country, even suggesting something as simple as chalk on the wall. Two of these coaches justified the use of basic testing by adopting an inclusive rather than exclusive TI approach, with one participant stating, “we’re not trying to cut people out, just making sure we don’t lose anyone that we should be including”.
In contrast, five coaches recognised the potential value of biomechanics and identified several areas where biomechanists could enhance the TI process. These included developing a functional measure for core strength, conducting physical screening, analysing general movement patterns across the court, collecting data, and standardising tests across different levels. This demonstrates a willingness to collaborate with biomechanists to increase the effectiveness and objectivity of TI programmes in volleyball. While this view aligns with broader scientific consensus on the relevance of biomechanical parameters in the identification of talented volleyball players, prior studies have primarily focused on testing athletes rather than consulting coaches on how such assessments should be used or interpreted in practice.26,30,33 For example, Ziv and Lidor emphasised the importance of monitoring vertical jump throughout the season, 26 and Pion et al. found motor coordination to be a distinguishing factor among elite youth players. 30 More recently, advanced biomechanical analyses using machine learning have shown that kinetic and kinematic variables can meaningfully distinguish movement strategies in elite players, offering insight into performance optimisation and injury prevention. 34 However, none of these studies engaged with coaches’ perspectives on the feasibility or application of these tests within real-world TI processes and the integration of objective biomechanical assessments in volleyball TI programmes remains limited and underexplored, indicating a gap in the current practice. 35
In response to these insights, two delineated lists of TI assessments for volleyball were formulated: one comprising basic field-based evaluations and another incorporating advanced lab-based biomechanical analyses (Table 3). These recommendations, informed by coaches’ insights and supplemented by existing literature, aim to provide a comprehensive yet accessible framework for identifying and nurturing volleyball talent. These assessment criteria can be used to evaluate training outcomes and for the recruitment of volleyball players. Also given 6 out of 8 participants (80%) participants are both indoor and beach coaches, the criteria can be applied to both settings.
List of recommended assessments for talent identification in volleyball.
Note. Abbreviations used: CMJ: Countermovement Jump; CODS: change of direction speed; DEXA: dual-energy X-ray; EMG: electromyography; SA: skeletal age; 3DMOTS: 3-dimensional multiple-object-tracking speed.
Together, these assessments provide valuable insights into the physical and biomechanical attributes relevant to TI in volleyball, aiding coaches and talent scouts in making informed decisions.
Strengths and limitations
This study has strengths and limitations that should be considered when interpreting the findings and their generalisability. A key strength is that it is the first study to use the NGT to collect insights from highly experienced elite coaches’ perspectives on the most important attributes essential for TI in volleyball. The NGT method is reliable, valid, and encourages diverse viewpoints, discussion, and consensus-building. 20 The online format of the NGT meetings offered significant advantages in terms of convenience and flexibility, enabling coaches from different parts of the world to participate without the need for travel. While some aspects of in-person interaction – such as spontaneous dialogue, informal exchanges, and non-verbal communication – were naturally less prominent, the structured nature of the NGT method helped ensure focused engagement and meaningful contributions from all participants. However, since the NGT relies on participants’ subjective rankings, there is a potential for individual biases to influence the prioritisation of characteristics. Personal coaching philosophies and prior experiences may have influenced the rankings, which should be considered when interpreting the results.
In addition, a limitation of the study is the overrepresentation of male coaches, which may have restricted range of perspectives, particularly regarding gender-specific nuances in TI. Furthermore, the gender of the teams coached by the participants was not recorded, and this factor may have influenced the relevance and applicability of the identified characteristics. For example, as the playing characteristics and tactics differ between male and female players, the coaching experience with gender-specific teams could impact how coaches perceive the importance of certain characteristics. 46 Future studies should aim to incorporate a more diverse panel, including female coaches and experts, as well as consider the gender of the teams coached to gain a more comprehensive understanding.
Moreover, while this study identifies key characteristics for TI, positional differences within the sport must be taken into account. The skillset required for a libero, for instance, significantly differs from that of a middle blocker or outside hitter, highlighting the need for further refinement and position-specific TI models. 11
Finally, factors such as team-specific playing styles, coaching philosophies, and the evolution of the game over time may influence the applicability of the identified characteristics. For instance, Aquino and Jolo highlight that holistic, goal-oriented coaching positively influences skill development and personal attributes in volleyball athletes. 47 While our study focused primarily on physical and perceptual characteristics, this divergence suggests a need to reconcile subjective talent characteristics with biomechanical and physiological data in future TI frameworks. Future research should explore how these variables interact with TI frameworks and assess whether the proposed characteristics remain relevant across different volleyball leagues and levels of play. Despite these limitations, this study provides a valuable foundation for refining TI processes in volleyball, contributing to more effective scouting, selection, and player development strategies.
Future implications
Our findings establish a foundation for the development of standardised and evidence-based TI assessments, enabling coaches, talent scouts, and researchers to systematically identify skilled volleyball players through recommended laboratory-based and field-based biomechanics assessments (Table 3). Implementing standardised, field-based assessments offers a more data-driven and consistent approach to identifying talented players. Additionally, the integration of advanced biomechanical tools for TI in volleyball can provide more detailed insights into players’ physical attributes and movement patterns, although these methods require greater resources and infrastructure.
By continuously refining and validating the physical domain of the EMTD framework presented in this study, more systematic, equitable, and effective TI strategies in volleyball can be achieved. Longitudinal studies are required to evaluate the long-term effectiveness of implementing these characteristics and assessments tools in TI programmes. Future studies could explore larger and more diverse datasets, integrating objective performance metrics (e.g., match statistics, physical testing) to evaluate the validity, reliability, and predictive ability of these assessments. Furthermore, other domains of the EMTD should be considered for a holistic approach to TI, this includes psychological factors such as motivation, resilience, and cognitive.
Conclusion
The current landscape of TI in volleyball predominantly relies on coaches’ subjective insights, leading to inconsistent and ambiguous definitions of talent. 5 This study addresses this challenge by developing a more structured and objective TI framework, integrating insights from elite coaches and biomechanical expertise. Elaborating on the EMTD model, nine key anthropometric, physiological, and skill-related characteristics were identified by elite coaches as essential for identifying talented adolescent volleyball players. Additionally, a list of recommended assessments was consolidated, offering practical, evidence-based tools to enhance and standardise the TI process in volleyball.
Supplemental Material
sj-pdf-1-spo-10.1177_17479541251359875 - Supplemental material for Exploring the essential characteristics for talent identification in volleyball: Insights from elite coaches *
Supplemental material, sj-pdf-1-spo-10.1177_17479541251359875 for Exploring the essential characteristics for talent identification in volleyball: Insights from elite coaches * by Esmee E Beldman, Sharon MH Tsang, Sarah M Dennis, Samuel L Halley, Chen Liu, Sienna JX Liu, Ping Zhang and Allan CL Fu in International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching
Supplemental Material
sj-pdf-2-spo-10.1177_17479541251359875 - Supplemental material for Exploring the essential characteristics for talent identification in volleyball: Insights from elite coaches *
Supplemental material, sj-pdf-2-spo-10.1177_17479541251359875 for Exploring the essential characteristics for talent identification in volleyball: Insights from elite coaches * by Esmee E Beldman, Sharon MH Tsang, Sarah M Dennis, Samuel L Halley, Chen Liu, Sienna JX Liu, Ping Zhang and Allan CL Fu in International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching
Supplemental Material
sj-pdf-3-spo-10.1177_17479541251359875 - Supplemental material for Exploring the essential characteristics for talent identification in volleyball: Insights from elite coaches *
Supplemental material, sj-pdf-3-spo-10.1177_17479541251359875 for Exploring the essential characteristics for talent identification in volleyball: Insights from elite coaches * by Esmee E Beldman, Sharon MH Tsang, Sarah M Dennis, Samuel L Halley, Chen Liu, Sienna JX Liu, Ping Zhang and Allan CL Fu in International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching
Footnotes
Acknowledgements
The authors extend their heartfelt gratitude to the following elite volleyball coaches for their invaluable contributions to this study: Phil Borgeaud, Boris Georgieff, Alexis Lebedew, Nikola Dimitrov, Dave Preston, Paul Smith, Martin Suan, and Chris Todd.
Author contributions
Esmee E. Beldman: Involved in the conceptualisation and design of the work. Contributed to the acquisition, analysis, and interpretation of data. Engaged in both drafting and reviewing the work critically. Gave final approval for the version to be published.
Sharon MH Tsang: Involved in the conceptualisation and design of the work. Contributed to the acquisition, analysis, and interpretation of data. Engaged in both drafting and reviewing the work critically. Gave final approval for the version to be published.
Sarah M Dennis: Engaged in data analysis and interpretation. Actively reviewed the work critically. Provided final approval for the version to be published.
Samuel L. Halley: Engaged in data acquisition and took part in the critical review of the work. Provided final approval for the version to be published.
Chen Liu: Engaged in data acquisition and took part in the critical review of the work. Provided final approval for the version to be published.
Sienna JX Liu: Engaged in data acquisition and took part in the critical review of the work. Provided final approval for the version to be published.
Ping Zhang: Contributed to data interpretation and took part in the critical review of the work. Provided final approval for the version to be published.
Allan CL Fu: Involved in the conceptualisation and design of the work. Contributed to the acquisition, analysis, and interpretation of data. Engaged in both drafting and reviewing the work critically. Gave final approval for the version to be published.
Ethical considerations
Ethics was approved by the university's Human Ethics Committee (reference number 2022/616) in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki prior to the study. The study complies with the international ethical standards aligned with the declaration of Helsinki, as noted by Harriss et al. 31 The trial procedure adhered to the SPIRIT Checklist. 32 Furthermore, this study was reviewed and approved by the Tishreen University Ethics Committee Review Board under approval number 4406. 33
Consent to participate
Informed consent to participate in this study was obtained from all individual participants included in the study. Consent was provided in written form, as approved by the Ethics Committee Review Board.
Consent for publication
Not applicable
Declaration of conflict of interest
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
ORCID iDs
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References
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