The superiority of using an external focus of attention for learning and performance benefits has been documented in distance running. However, there is limited research examining the actual attentional focus strategies adopted by distance runners. The purpose of this study was to describe the focus of attention used by distance runners in practice and competition and to better understand where these athletes seek information about improving performance. Sixteen distance runners (32.1 ± 10.0 yr) who run at least 20 mile/week (37.7 ± 10.8 mile/week) completed a questionnaire examining information related to attentional focus during training and competition and where athletes go for educational resources. Results indicate that distance runners do not solely adhere to external focus of attention, rather utilize multiple forms of attentional focus strategies that are not examined in laboratory research. Further, it seems that most training advice is received from coaches or training partners and not scientific literature.
WulfG. Attentional focus and motor learning: a review of 10 years of research. E-J Beweg Train2007; 1: 1–11.
2.
WulfG. Attentional focus and motor learning: a review of 15 years. Int Rev Sport Exerc Psychol2013; 6: 77–104.
3.
WulfGHößMPrinzW. Instructions for motor learning: differential effects of internal versus external focus of attention. J Motor Behav1998; 30: 169–179.
4.
Perkins-CeccatoNPassmoreSRLeeTD. Effects of focus of attention depend on golfers’ skill. J Sports Sci2003; 21: 593–600.
5.
WulfGSuJ. An external focus of attention enhances golf shot accuracy in beginners and experts. Res Q Exerc Sport2007; 78: 384–389.
6.
Al-AboodSABennettSJHernandezFM, et al.Effect of verbal instructions and image size on visual search strategies in basketball free throw shooting. J Sports Sci2002; 20: 271–278.
7.
RaisbeckLDDiekfussJA. Verbal cues and attentional focus: a simulated target-shooting experiment. J Motor Learn Dev2017; 5: 148–159.
8.
WulfGWeigeltMPoulterD, et al.Attentional focus on suprapostural tasks affects balance learning. Q J Exp Psychol Sect A2003; 56: 1191–1211.
9.
WulfGZachryTGranadosC, et al.Increases in jump-and-reach height through an external focus of attention. Int J Sports Sci Coach2007; 2: 275–284.
10.
WulfGSheaCParkJ-H. Attention and motor performance: preferences for and advantages of an external focus. Res Q Exerc Sport2001; 72: 335–344.
11.
WulfGMcNevinNSheaCH. The automaticity of complex motor skill learning as a function of attentional focus. Q J Exp Psychol Sect A2001; 54: 1143–1154.
LohseKRSherwoodDEHealyAF. How changing the focus of attention affects performance, kinematics, and electromyography in dart throwing. Hum Mov Sci2010; 29: 542–555.
14.
VanceJWulfGTöllnerT, et al.EMG activity as a function of the performer’s focus of attention. J Motor Behav2004; 36: 450–459.
15.
LohseKRSherwoodDE. Thinking about muscles: the neuromuscular effects of attentional focus on accuracy and fatigue. Acta Psychol2012; 140: 236–245.
16.
CollinsDCarsonHJTonerJ. Letter to the editor concerning the article “Performance of gymnastics skill benefits from an external focus of attention” by Abdollahipour, Wulf, Psotta & Nieto (2015). J Sports Sci2016; 34: 1288–1292.
17.
HutchinsonJCTenenbaumG. Attention focus during physical effort: the mediating role of task intensity. Psychol Sport Exerc2007; 8: 233–245.
18.
DiekfussJARaisbeckLD. Focus of attention and instructional feedback from NCAA division 1 collegiate coaches. J Motor Learn Dev2016; 4: 262–273.
19.
FairbrotherJTPostPGWhalenSJ. Self-reported responses to player profile questions show consistency with the use of complex attentional strategies by expert horseshoe pitchers. Front Psychol2016; 7: 1028.
20.
PorterJNolanROstrowskiE, et al.Directing attention externally enhances agility performance: a qualitative and quantitative analysis of the efficacy of using verbal instructions to focus attention. Front Psychol2010; 1: 216.
21.
BernierMCodronRThienotE, et al.The attentional focus of expert golfers in training and competition: a naturalistic investigation. J Appl Sport Psychol2011; 23: 326–341.
22.
BernierMTrottierCThienotE, et al.An investigation of attentional foci and their temporal patterns: a naturalistic study in expert figure skaters. Sport Psychol2015; 30(3): 256–266.
PorterJWuWPartridgeJ. Focus of attention and verbal instructions: strategies of elite track and field coaches and athletes. Sport Sci Rev2010; 19: 77–89.
25.
Guss-WestCWulfG. Attentional focus in classical ballet: a survey of professional dancers. J Dance Med Sci2016; 20: 23–29.
26.
SchückerLHagemannNStraussB, et al.The effect of attentional focus on running economy. J Sports Sci2009; 27: 1241–1248.
27.
HillASchückerLHagemannN, et al.Further evidence for an external focus of attention in running: looking at specific focus instructions and individual differences. J Sport Exerc Psychol2017; 39: 352–365.
28.
BrickNMacIntyreTCampbellM. Attentional focus in endurance activity: new paradigms and future directions. Int Rev Sport Exerc Psychol2014; 7: 106–134.
29.
HalperinIChapmanDWMartinDT, et al.Coaching cues in amateur boxing: an analysis of ringside feedback provided between rounds of competition. Psychol Sport Exerc2016; 25: 44–50.
30.
van der GraaffEHoozemansMPasteuningM, et al.Focus of attention instructions during baseball pitching training. Int J sports Sci Coach2018; 13(3): 391–397.
31.
MorganWPPollockML. Psychologic characterization of the elite distance runner. Ann N Y Acad Sci1977; 301: 382–403.
32.
LandisJRKochGG. The measurement of observer agreement for categorical data. Biometrics1977; 33: 159–174.
33.
McHughML. Interrater reliability: the kappa statistic. Biochem Med2012; 22: 276–282.
34.
OrlickTPartingtonJ. Mental links to excellence. Sport Psychol1988; 2: 105–130.
35.
SibleyBAEtnierJL. Time course of attention and decision making during a volleyball set. Res Q Exerc Sport2004; 75: 102–106.
