Mind wandering, defined as focusing attention towards task-unrelated thoughts, is a common mental state known to impair memory encoding. This phenomenon is closely linked to boredom. Very few studies, however, have tested the potential impact of boredom on memory encoding. Thus, the present study aimed at manipulating mind wandering and boredom during an incidental memory encoding task, to test their differential impact on memory encoding. Thirty-two participants performed a variant of the n-back task in which they had to indicate if the current on-screen object was the same as the previous one (1-back; low working memory load) or the one presented three trials before (3-back; high working memory load). Moreover, thought probes assessing either mind wandering or boredom were randomly presented. Afterwards, a surprise recognition task was delivered. Results showed that mind wandering and boredom were highly correlated, and both decreased in the high working memory load condition, while memory performance increased. Although both boredom and mind wandering predicted memory performance taken separately, we found that mind wandering was the only reliable predictor of memory performance when controlling for boredom and working memory load. Model comparisons also revealed that a model with boredom only was outperformed by a model with mind wandering only and a model with both mind wandering and boredom, suggesting that the predictive contribution of boredom in the complete model is minimal. The present results confirm the high correlation between mind wandering and boredom and suggest that the hindering effect of boredom on memory is subordinate to the effect of mind wandering.
Andrews-HannaJ. R.KaiserR. H.TurnerA. E. J.ReinebergA. E.GodinezD.DimidjianS.BanichM. T. (2013). A penny for your thoughts: Dimensions of self-generated thought content and relationships with individual differences in emotional wellbeing. Frontiers in Psychology, 4(November), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00900
2.
BairdB.SmallwoodJ.SchoolerJ. W. (2011). Back to the future: Autobiographical planning and the functionality of mind-wandering. Consciousness and Cognition, 20(4), 1604–1611. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2011.08.007
3.
BarronE.RibyL. M.GreerJ.SmallwoodJ. (2011). Absorbed in thought: The effect of mind wandering on the processing of relevant and irrelevant events. Psychological Science, 22(5), 596–601. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797611404083
4.
BlaisM. R.VallerandR. J.PelletierL. G.BrièreN. M. (1989). L’échelle de satisfaction de vie: Validation canadienne-française du “Satisfaction with Life Scale.”Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue Canadienne Des Sciences Du Comportement, 21(2), 210–223. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0079854
5.
BlanchardN.BixlerR.JoyceT.D’MelloS. (2014). Automated physiological-based detection of mind wandering during learning. In Trausan-MatuS.BoyerK. E.CrosbyM.PanourgiaK. (Eds.), Lecture notes in computer science (including subseries lecture notes in artificial intelligence and lecture notes in bioinformatics) (Vol. 8474, Issue June, pp. 55–60). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-07221-0_7
6.
BlondéP.MakowskiD.SperdutiM.PiolinoP. (2020). In Medio Stat Virtus: Intermediate levels of mind wandering improve episodic memory encoding in a virtual environment. Psychological Research, Urp, 7536. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-020-01358-5
7.
CarpenterB.GelmanA.HoffmanM. D.LeeD.GoodrichB.BetancourtM.BrubakerM.GuoJ.LiP.RiddellA. (2017). Stan: A probabilistic programming language. Journal of Statistical Software, 76(1). https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v076.i01
8.
CarriereJ. S. A.CheyneJ. A.SmilekD. (2008). Everyday attention lapses and memory failures: The affective consequences of mindlessness. Consciousness and Cognition, 17(3), 835–847. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2007.04.008
9.
CheethamM.CepedaC.GamboaH. (2016). Automated detection of mind wandering: A mobile application. In Proceedings of the 9th International Joint Conference on Biomedical Engineering Systems and Technologies (pp. 4198–4205). https://doi.org/10.5220/0005702401980205
10.
ChinchanachokchaiS.DuffB. R. L.FaberR. J. (2020). Distracted mind: The effects of multitasking and mind wandering on consumer memory for ad content. International Journal of Advertising, 39(5), 631–654. https://doi.org/10.1080/02650487.2019.1670536
11.
ConwayA. R. A.KaneM. J.BuntingM. F.HambrickD. Z.WilhelmO.EngleR. W. (2005). Working memory span tasks: A methodological review and user’s guide. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 12(5), 769–786. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03196772
12.
CraikF. I. M.GovoniR.Naveh-BenjaminM.AndersonN. D. (1996). The effects of divided attention on encoding and retrieval processes in human memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 125(2), 159–180. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.125.2.159
13.
CraikF. I. M.LuoL.SakutaY. (2010). Effects of aging and divided attention on memory for items and their contexts. Psychology and Aging, 25(4), 968–979. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020276
14.
CritcherC. R.GilovichT. (2010). Inferring attitudes from mind wandering. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 36(9), 1255–1266. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167210375434
EastwoodJ. D.FrischenA.FenskeM. J.SmilekD. (2012). The unengaged mind: Defining boredom in terms of attention. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 7(5), 482–495. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691612456044
21.
EtzA.VandekerckhoveJ. (2016). A Bayesian perspective on the reproducibility project: Psychology. PLOS ONE, 11(2), Article e0149794. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0149794
22.
FarmerR.SundbergN. D. (1986). Boredom proneness—The development and correlates of a new scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 50(1), 4–17. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa5001_2
23.
FernandesM. A.MoscovitchM. (2000). Divided attention and memory: Evidence of substantial interference effects at retrieval and encoding. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 129(2), 155–176. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.129.2.155
24.
FranklinM. S.SmallwoodJ.ZedeliusC. M.BroadwayJ. M.SchoolerJ. W. (2016). Unaware yet reliant on attention: Experience sampling reveals that mind-wandering impedes implicit learning. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 23(1), 223–229. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-015-0885-5
25.
FriteaI.FriteaR. (2013). Can motivational regulation counteract the effects of boredom on academic achievement?Procedia—Social and Behavioral Sciences, 78, 135–139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.04.266
26.
GabryJ.GoodrichB. (2016). rstanarm: Bayesian applied regression modeling via stan. R Package Version, 2(1). https://mc-stan.org/rstanarm/
27.
GelmanA.HwangJ.VehtariA. (2014). Understanding predictive information criteria for Bayesian models. Statistics and Computing, 24(6), 997–1016. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11222-013-9416-2
28.
GiakoumisD.VogiannouA.KosunenI.MoustakasK.TzovarasD.HassapisG. (2010, January3–12). Identifying psychophysiological correlates of boredom and negative mood induced during HCI. Proceedings of the 1st International Workshop on Bio-inspired Human-machine Interfaces and Healthcare Applications. https://doi.org/10.5220/0002812600030012
29.
GoldbergR.TodmanM. (2018). Induced boredom suppresses the recall of positively valenced information: A preliminary study. Psychological Thought, 11(1), 18–32. https://doi.org/10.5964/psyct.v11i1.249
HitchcockE. M.DemberW. N.WarmJ. S.MoroneyB. W.SeeJ. E. (1999). Effects of cueing and knowledge of results on workload and boredom in sustained attention. Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, 41(3), 365–372. https://doi.org/10.1518/001872099779610987
33.
HollisR. B.WasC. A. (2016). Mind wandering, control failures, and social media distractions in online learning. Learning and Instruction, 42, 104–112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2016.01.007
34.
HunterA.EastwoodJ. D. (2018). Does state boredom cause failures of attention? Examining the relations between trait boredom, state boredom, and sustained attention. Experimental Brain Research, 236(9), 2483–2492. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-016-4749-7
35.
HunterJ. A.EastwoodJ. D. (2020b). Understanding the relation between boredom and academic performance in postsecondary students. Journal of Educational Psychology, 113(3), 499–515. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000479
36.
IsacescuJ.StrukA. A.DanckertJ. (2017). Cognitive and affective predictors of boredom proneness. Cognition and Emotion, 31(8), 1741–1748. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2016.1259995
37.
JaeggiS. M.BuschkuehlM.PerrigW. J.MeierB. (2010). The concurrent validity of the N-back task as a working memory measure. Memory, 18(4), 394–412. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658211003702171
38.
JangE.-H.ParkB.-J.ParkM.-S.KimS.-H.SohnJ.-H. (2015). Analysis of physiological signals for recognition of boredom, pain, and surprise emotions. Journal of Physiological Anthropology, 34(1), 25. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40101-015-0063-5
39.
KaneM. J.BrownL. H.McVayJ. C.SilviaP. J.Myin-GermeysI.KwapilT. R. (2007). For whom the mind wanders, and when. Psychological Science, 18(7), 614–621. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01948.x
40.
KaneM. J.SmeekensB. A.von BastianC. C.LurquinJ. H.CarruthN. P.MiyakeA. (2017). A combined experimental and individual-differences investigation into mind wandering during a video lecture. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 146(11), 1649–1674. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000362
KlingerE. (1999). Thought flow: Properties and mechanisms underlying shifts in content. In SingerJ. A.SaloveyP. (Eds.), At play in the fields of consciousness: Essays in honor of Jerome L. Singer (pp. 29–50). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
44.
KrimskyM.ForsterD. E.LlabreM. M.JhaA. P. (2017). The influence of time on task on mind wandering and visual working memory. Cognition, 169, 84–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2017.08.006
45.
KroenkeK.SpitzerR. L.WilliamsJ. B. W.LöweB. (2009). An ultra-brief screening scale for anxiety and depression: The PHQ–4. Psychosomatics, 50(6), 613–621. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0033-3182(09)70864-3
46.
KruschkeJ. K. (2014). Doing Bayesian data analysis: A tutorial with R, JAGS, and Stan. Academic Press.
47.
LePeraN. (2011). Relationships between boredom proneness, mindfulness, anxiety, depression, and substance use. The New School Psychology Bulletin, 8(2), 15–25. https://doi.org/10.1037/e741452011-003
48.
LondonH.SchubertD. S.WashburnD. (1972). Increase of autonomic arousal by boredom. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 80(1), 29–36. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0033311
49.
LöweB.WahlI.RoseM.SpitzerC.GlaesmerH.WingenfeldK.SchneiderA.BrählerE. (2010). A 4-item measure of depression and anxiety: Validation and standardization of the Patient Health Questionnaire-4 (PHQ-4) in the general population. Journal of Affective Disorders, 122(1–2), 86–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2009.06.019
50.
MailletD.RajahM. N. (2014a). Age-related differences in brain activity in the subsequent memory paradigm: A meta-analysis. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 45, 246–257.
MailletD.RajahM. N. (2016). Assessing the neural correlates of task-unrelated thoughts during episodic encoding and their association with subsequent memory in young and older adults. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 28(6), 826–841. https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn_a_00935
53.
MailletD.SchacterD. L. (2016). When the mind wanders: Distinguishing stimulus-dependent from stimulus-independent thoughts during incidental encoding in young and older adults. Psychology and Aging, 31(4), 370–379. https://doi.org/10.1037/pag0000099
54.
MailletD.SeliP.SchacterD. L. (2017). Mind-wandering and task stimuli: Stimulus-dependent thoughts influence performance on memory tasks and are more often past- versus future-oriented. Consciousness and Cognition, 52, 55–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2017.04.014
55.
MakowskiD. (2018). The psycho package: An efficient and publishing-oriented workflow for psychological science. The Journal of Open Source Software, 3(22), 470. https://doi.org/10.21105/joss.00470
56.
MakowskiD.Ben-ShacharM. S.ChenS. H. A.LüdeckeD. (2019). Indices of effect existence and significance in the Bayesian framework. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 2767. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02767
57.
MakowskiD.SperdutiM.BlondéP.NicolasS.PiolinoP. (2019). The heart of cognitive control: Cardiac phase modulates processing speed and inhibition. Psychophysiology, 57, e13490. https://doi.org/10.1111/psyp.13490
58.
MakowskiD.SperdutiM.PelletierJ.BlondéP.La CorteV.ArcangeliM.ZallaT.LemaireS.DokicJ.NicolasS.PiolinoP. (2019). Phenomenal, bodily and brain correlates of fictional reappraisal as an implicit emotion regulation strategy. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience, 19, 877–897. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13415-018-00681-0
59.
MalkovskyE.MerrifieldC.GoldbergY.DanckertJ. (2012). Exploring the relationship between boredom and sustained attention. Experimental Brain Research, 221(1), 59–67. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-012-3147-z
McVayJ. C.KaneM. J. (2009). Conducting the train of thought: Working memory capacity, goal neglect, and mind wandering in an executive-control task. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 35(1), 196–204. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014104
62.
McVayJ. C.KaneM. J. (2012). Drifting from slow to “d’oh!”: Working memory capacity and mind wandering predict extreme reaction times and executive control errors. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 38(3), 525–549. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025896
63.
MerrifieldC.DanckertJ. (2014). Characterizing the psychophysiological signature of boredom. Experimental Brain Research, 232(2), 481–491. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-013-3755-2
64.
MetcalfeJ.XuJ. (2016). People mind wander more during massed than spaced inductive learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning Memory and Cognition, 42(6), 978–984. https://doi.org/10.1037/xlm0000216
65.
MikulasW. L.VodanovichS. J. (1993). The essence of boredom. The Psychological Record, 43(1), 3–12.
66.
OttavianiC.CouyoumdjianA. (2013). Pros and cons of a wandering mind: A prospective study. Frontiers in Psychology, 4, 524. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00524
67.
OttavianiC.ShahabiL.TarvainenM.CookI.AbramsM.ShapiroD. (2015). Cognitive, behavioral, and autonomic correlates of mind wandering and perseverative cognition in major depression. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 8, 433. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2014.00433
68.
OttavianiC.ShapiroD.CouyoumdjianA. (2013). Flexibility as the key for somatic health: From mind wandering to perseverative cognition. Biological Psychology, 94(1), 38–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2013.05.003
69.
PalomäkiJ.KivikangasM.AlafuzoffA.HakalaT.KrauseC. M. (2012). Brain oscillatory 4–35Hz EEG responses during an n-back task with complex visual stimuli. Neuroscience Letters, 516(1), 141–145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neulet.2012.03.076
70.
PattynN.NeytX.HenderickxD.SoetensE. (2008). Psychophysiological investigation of vigilance decrement: Boredom or cognitive fatigue?Physiology & Behavior, 93(1–2), 369–378. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2007.09.016
71.
PauseB. M.ZlomuzicaA.KinugawaK.MarianiJ.PietrowskyR.DereE. (2013). Perspectives on episodic-like and episodic memory. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 7, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2013.00033
72.
PekrunR.GoetzT.DanielsL. M.StupniskyR. H.PerryR. P. (2010). Boredom in achievement settings: Exploring control–value antecedents and performance outcomes of a neglected emotion. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102(3), 531–549. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019243
73.
PekrunR.HallN. C.GoetzT.PerryR. P. (2014). Boredom and academic achievement: Testing a model of reciprocal causation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 106(3), 696–710. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036006
74.
PerkinsR. E. (1981). The nature and origins of boredom. Keele University.
75.
PhamP.WangJ. (2015). AttentiveLearner: Improving mobile MOOC learning via implicit heart rate tracking. In ConatiC.HeffernanN.MitrovicA.VerdejoM. F. (Eds.), Lecture notes in computer science (including subseries lecture notes in artificial intelligence and lecture notes in bioinformatics) (Vol. 9112, pp. 367–376). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-19773-9_37
76.
RaffaelliQ.MillsC.ChristoffK. (2018). The knowns and unknowns of boredom: A review of the literature. Experimental Brain Research, 236(9), 2451–2462. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-017-4922-7
R Development Core Team. (2008). R: A language and environment for statistical computing.
79.
RibyL. M.SmallwoodJ.GunnV. P. (2008). Mind wandering and retrieval from episodic memory: A pilot event-related potential study. Psychological Reports, 102(3), 805–818. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.102.3.805-818
80.
RiskoE. F.AndersonN.SarwalA.EngelhardtM.KingstoneA. (2012). Everyday attention: Variation in mind wandering and memory in a lecture. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 26(2), 234–242. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.1814
81.
RobisonM. K.UnsworthN. (2017). Cognitive and contextual correlates of spontaneous and deliberate mind-wandering. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning Memory and Cognition, 44(1), 85–98. https://doi.org/10.1037/xlm0000444
82.
RummelJ.BoywittC. D. (2014). Controlling the stream of thought: Working memory capacity predicts adjustment of mind-wandering to situational demands. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 21(5), 1309–1315. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-013-0580-3
83.
SchoolerJ. W.SmallwoodJ.ChristoffK.HandyT. C.ReichleE. D.SayetteM. A. (2011). Meta-awareness, perceptual decoupling and the wandering mind. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 15(7), 319–326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2011.05.006
84.
SeibertP. S.EllisH. C. (1991). Irrelevant thoughts, emotional mood states, and cognitive task performance. Memory & Cognition, 19(5), 507–513. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03199574
85.
SeliP.CarriereJ. S. A.SmilekD. (2015). Not all mind wandering is created equal: Dissociating deliberate from spontaneous mind wandering. Psychological Research, 79(5), 750–758. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-014-0617-x
86.
SeliP.KonishiM.RiskoE. F.SmilekD. (2018). The role of task difficulty in theoretical accounts of mind wandering. Consciousness and Cognition, 65, 255–262. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2018.08.005
87.
SeliP.RiskoE. F.SmilekD. (2016). On the necessity of distinguishing between unintentional and intentional mind wandering. Psychological Science, 27(5), 685–691. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797616634068
88.
SeliP.WammesJ. D.RiskoE. F.SmilekD. (2016). On the relation between motivation and retention in educational contexts: The role of intentional and unintentional mind wandering. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 23(4), 1280–1287. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-015-0979-0
SmallwoodJ.BaracaiaS. F.LoweM.ObonsawinM. (2003). Task unrelated thought whilst encoding information. Consciousness and Cognition, 12(3), 452–484. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1053-8100(03)00018-7
91.
SmallwoodJ.BrownK. S.TipperC.GiesbrechtB.FranklinM. S.MrazekM. D.CarlsonJ. M.SchoolerJ. W. (2011). Pupillometric evidence for the decoupling of attention from perceptual input during offline thought. PLOS ONE, 6(3), Article e18298. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0018298
92.
SmallwoodJ.O’ConnorR. C. (2011). Imprisoned by the past: Unhappy moods lead to a retrospective bias to mind wandering. Cognition & Emotion, 25(8), 1481–1490. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2010.545263
93.
SmallwoodJ.DaviesJ. B.HeimD.FinniganF.SudberryM.O’ConnorR.ObonsawinM. (2004). Subjective experience and the attentional lapse: Task engagement and disengagement during sustained attention. Consciousness and Cognition, 13(4), 657–690. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2004.06.003
94.
SmallwoodJ.O’ConnorR. C.SudberryM. V.HaskellC.BallantyneC. (2004). The consequences of encoding information on the maintenance of internally generated images and thoughts: The role of meaning complexes. Consciousness and Cognition, 13(4), 789–820. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2004.07.004
StawarczykD.MajerusS.MajM.Van der LindenM.D’ArgembeauA. (2011). Mind-wandering: Phenomenology and function as assessed with a novel experience sampling method. Acta Psychologica, 136(3), 370–381. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2011.01.002
98.
SteinbergerF.MoellerA.SchroeterR. (2016). The antecedents, experience, and coping strategies of driver boredom in young adult males. Journal of Safety Research, 59, 69–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2016.10.007
99.
TakumaK.HoriS.SasakiJ.ShinozawaY.YoshikawaT.HandaS.HorikawaM.AikawaN. (1995). An alternative limb lead system for electrocardiographs in emergency patients. The American Journal of Emergency Medicine, 13(5), 514–517. https://doi.org/10.1016/0735-6757(95)90160-4
100.
ThackrayR. I.BaileyJ. P.TouchstoneR. M. (1977). Physiological, subjective, and performance correlates of reported boredom and monotony while performing a simulated radar control task. In Vigilance (pp. 203–215). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4684-2529-1_12
101.
ThomsonD. R.SmilekD.BesnerD. (2014). On the asymmetric effects of mind-wandering on levels of processing at encoding and retrieval. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 21(3), 728–733. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-013-0526-9
102.
TroyerA. K.CraikF. I. M. (2000). The effect of divided attention on memory for items and their context. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology/revue Canadienne De Psychologie Expérimentale, 54(3), 161–171. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0087338
103.
TroyerA. K.WinocurG.CraikF. I. M.MoscovitchM. (1999). Source memory and divided attention: Reciprocal costs to primary and secondary tasks. Neuropsychology, 13(4), 467–474. https://doi.org/10.1037/0894-4105.13.4.467
104.
TulvingE. (1972). Episodic and semantic memory. Organization of Memory, 1, 381–403.
TzeV. M. C.DanielsL. M.KlassenR. M. (2016). Evaluating the relationship between boredom and academic outcomes: A meta-analysis. Educational Psychology Review, 28(1), 119–144. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-015-9301-y
107.
UncapherM. R.RuggM. D. (2005). Effects of divided attention on fMRI correlates of memory encoding. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 17(12), 1923–1935. https://doi.org/10.1162/089892905775008616
108.
van DoornJ.van den BerghD.BöhmU.DablanderF.DerksK.DrawsT.EtzA.EvansN. J.GronauQ. F.HaafJ. M.HinneM.KucharskýŠ.LyA.MarsmanM.MatzkeD.GuptaA. R. K. N.SarafoglouA.StefanA.VoelkelJ. G.WagenmakersE.-J. (2020). The JASP guidelines for conducting and reporting a Bayesian analysis. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-020-01798-5
109.
VehtariA.GelmanA.GabryJ. (2017). Practical Bayesian model evaluation using leave-one-out cross-validation and WAIC. Statistics and Computing, 27(5), 1413–1432. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11222-016-9696-4
110.
VodanovichS. J.VernerK. M.GilbrideT. V. (1991). Boredom proneness: Its relationship to positive and negative affect. Psychological Reports, 69(3 Suppl.), 1139–1146. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.1991.69.3f.1139
111.
Vogel-WalcuttJ. J.FiorellaL.CarperT.SchatzS. (2012). The definition, assessment, and mitigation of state boredom within educational settings: A comprehensive review. Educational Psychology Review, 24(1), 89–111. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-011-9182-7
112.
WagenmakersE.-J.MarsmanM.JamilT.LyA.VerhagenJ.LoveJ.SelkerR.GronauQ. F.ŠmíraM.EpskampS.MatzkeD.RouderJ. N.MoreyR. D. (2018). Bayesian inference for psychology. Part I: Theoretical advantages and practical ramifications. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 25(1), 35–57. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-017-1343-3
113.
WallaceJ. C.KassS. J.StannyC. J. (2002). The cognitive failures questionnaire revisited: Dimensions and correlates. The Journal of General Psychology, 129(3), 238–256. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221300209602098
114.
WallaceJ. C.VodanovichS. J.RestinoB. M. (2003). Predicting cognitive failures from boredom proneness and daytime sleepiness scores: An investigation within military and undergraduate samples. Personality and Individual Differences, 34(4), 635–644. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(02)00050-8
115.
WammesJ. D.BoucherP. O.SeliP.CheyneJ. A.SmilekD. (2016). Mind wandering during lectures I: Changes in rates across an entire semester. Scholarship of Teaching and Learning in Psychology, 2(1), 13–32. https://doi.org/10.1037/stl0000053
116.
WammesJ. D.SeliP.CheyneJ. A.BoucherP. O.SmilekD. (2016). Mind wandering during lectures II: Relation to academic performance. Scholarship of Teaching and Learning in Psychology, 2(1), 33–48. https://doi.org/10.1037/stl0000055
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
