Abstract
In recent decades, Competence-Based Education (CBE), which emerges to promote the competence development of learners, has been recognized as a pivotal framework, initiating paradigm shifts in Vocational Education and Training (VET) across the globe. Notwithstanding critiques regarding conceptual limitations and its association with neoliberal models of education, the concept of CBE is widely adopted in the VET systems of many countries. However, there is the dearth of empirical evidence about how this concept is implemented into educational practice within the national VET contexts, in which the CBE concept is introduced and regarded as initiative of VET modernization. Against this background, this study investigates the implementation of the approaches to competence orientation (also called competence-based approaches, abbr. CBA) in the curricula of commercial VET programmes in China and Russia, specifically focussing on Accounting and Logistics. Through qualitative content analysis, the study illuminates features of the CBA embedded in curricular documents at both national and institutional levels within these countries. The comparison of the results highlights potential similarities and distinctions regarding the realization of the CBE concept into educational practice of VET between both countries. The comparative findings reveal significant alignment with labour market needs, yet differences emerge in the principles regarding competence-based teaching and learning between both countries. While Chinese VET programmes showcase more individualized embedment of the CBA in different institutions, greater standardization of the CBA embedment evident in Russian VET curricula. These findings underscore the influence of national contexts in shaping the interpretation and application of global educational trends, offering nuanced insights for policymakers and educators looking to optimize the realisation of the CBA within VET curricula.
Keywords
Introduction
The introduction of competence-based education (CBE) has led to a paradigm shift in Vocational Education and Training (VET) systems, emphasizing the development of competences (Argüelles and Gonczi, 2000: 9; Biemans et al., 2004; Gonczi, 2000: 37). The concept of CBE is extensively adopted and implemented in VET systems across numerous countries globally as a strategic approach for the modernization and advancement of their VET systems (Hodge et al., 2020: 28).
Proponents of competence-based vocational education and training (CBVET) underline its various potential benefits. Above all, the widespread recognition and popularity of CBVET has been fostered by an expectation that it helps to reduce the gap between the educational and professional spheres, among other means, through the integration of competencies reflecting professional practice into the learning process (Biemans et al., 2009). In addition, CBVET is associated with government goals of facilitating lifelong learning and employability of the population, which, among other things, facilitates an easier transition from school to work (Biemans et al., 2004; Boahin et al., 2014: 840). However, there are also intense debates and critiques of CBVET (Lassnigg, 2017). A critical perspective on it, particularly in Anglo-Saxon countries, argues, among other issues, that it is associated with a neoliberal model of education that adopts a narrow and utilitarian approach to education (Naranjo, 2022: 23). Furthermore, conceptual limitations of CBVET, complexity and possible challenges and pitfalls of its implementation are also underlined in some research (Biemans et al., 2004; Curry and Docherty, 2017).
Given the growing prevalence of CBVET, despite some critical perspectives, there has been a constructive development and extensive discussion on the competence-based approaches (CBA) (e.g. Wesselink et al., 2010). These approaches strive to align VET systems more closely with competence frameworks, thereby facilitating the development of learners’ competences (Hodge et al., 2020: 28; Mulder, 2017). In nations such as England, the USA, Germany and the Netherlands, a long tradition exists on implementing different models of the CBA in their VET systems (e.g. Mulder et al., 2007). Inspired by the models in these developed countries, the CBA has, over the past two decades, as well emerged as a leading concept in the modernization of VET systems in several other countries, including the countries like Russia and China, both of which have VET systems that are rooted in, or influenced by, the Soviet educational paradigm. In these two countries, the CBA has been introduced and adopted chiefly to address the misalignment between labour market demands and VET outcomes.
In China, the CBA has been introduced into the educational system since 1990s, and has drawn broad attention, especially in the VET field (Xu, 2008, 2017; Yang, 2017). The CBVET was perceived as a form of vocational education that primarily caters to the demands of enterprises and emphasizes the development of learners’ professional competencies (He, 2007: 331). At the beginning of the 21st century, the CBA was promoted during the curriculum reform nationwide (Yang, 2017: 5) and intended to build connections between training content and practical tasks in the workplace, which helps bridge the gap between vocational education and employment (Xu, 2008: 53). Since its adoption into educational policies in 2003 (Yao and Cha, 2011), the CBA was widely practiced based on different models in an integrated manner in the Chinese VET system over the past 20 years (He, 2007; Xu, 2017: 7).
In Russia, the CBA in education has been discussed since the end of the 1990s and became an important aspect of rethinking Russian education from the beginning of the 21st century (Zimnjaja, 2004: 7). CBE has been thought of as a type of education that is not limited to the knowledge-based component, but requires a holistic experience of solving life problems, performing key functions, social roles, and competencies (Bolotov and Serikov, 2003). On the political level, the CBA became a part of the changing educational paradigm in Russian education especially since 2002 (Zimnjaja, 2004: 7). The definitive moment of the CBA implementation in VET can be traced back to the transition to the third generation of educational standards of VET (Derkaс, 2011: 215), occurring in 2011. The new standards contain description of general and professional competences to be achieved by a graduate of the programme.
Therefore, both countries have relatively recent experience with the introduction of the CBA. Although CBVET has been a subject of Chinese and Russian academic discourse in the recent decades, as well as a focus of educational reforms, insights on the CBA from a practical perspective, explicitly on its incorporation in curriculum planning and practical implementation in VET institutions, is still limited in both Chinese and Russian discourse. Within the international scholarly dialogue on vocational education research, there are several comparative studies focussing on distinct aspects of Chinese and Russian VET, such as the organisational cultures of vocational schools and enterprises in Russia, China, and Iran (Zakharova et al., 2020) and the international trends of modernization in professional education in Russia, China, and Germany (Loyko et al., 2015). Yet, a conspicuous absence of comparative research specifically addressing curricular practices persists within the overarching global discourse on VET of these two countries.
Constituting the initial phase of the research project CodeVET 1 , this study aims at investigating and comparing the implementation of the CBA at various levels of curriculum planning within selected commercial VET programmes of Accounting and Logistics 2 in Russia and China. Specifically, it examines the embedding of the CBA within the developed curricular documents at both the national and vocational educational institution levels. The primary research question addressed by this study is as follows: which features of the CBA can be identified in the curricular documents of selected commercial VET programmes in China and Russia, indicating similarities and particularities in both national contexts? Conducting a research on curriculum supports evidence-based decision-making and contributes to continuous improvement of education and training (Mulder, 2017, S. 248). The analysis of curricula conducted in this study yields valuable empirical evidence regarding the extent to which the CBA is embedded in the curriculum planning at both the national level and within VET institutions. Specifically, this investigation illuminates which features of the CBA are adopted within these developed curricula. Furthermore, by comparing two different contexts, we can identify both commonalities and unique characteristics in the development of the CBA within curriculum planning. These findings not only contribute to a deeper understanding of the subject but also lay the groundwork for future enhancements in implementing the CBA within their respective contexts.
In the following second section, the theoretical foundations of the CBA will be elucidated. Subsequently, in the third section, a brief introduction of both the Chinese and Russian VET systems will be provided, which serve as the contexts of the study. The fourth section will give a concise overview of the methodology employed, while the fifth section will present the analysis results. Moving forward, the sixth section will present the discussion and interpretation of the obtained results. Finally, the limitations encountered during the study will be addressed, followed by a summary of the study’s key insights in the concluding section.
Theoretical framework of the competence-based approach
Although the CBA is having a major influence on development of Vet all over the world, its conceptualisation remains a challenge. There are various approaches toward CBE (Lassnigg, 2017). In academic research and policy making, there are different perspectives on what principles comprise the CBA at the level of planning and implementation of educational processes. Furthermore, understanding of the underlying concept of the approach – competence – remains diffuse, although it is widely spread (Baumeler, 2019; Hodge et al., 2020). Definitions of competencies vary significantly, from cognitive skills to work outcomes or personal characteristics (Boritz and Carnaghan, 2003: 8). Boahin et al. (2014) also point out that different organisations and countries use the same term of competence, but conceptualise it differently due to their institutional structures and work processes.
However, some of the ideas are central and can be found in different conceptualisations across different national contexts as well as educational spheres. So, Boritz and Carnaghan (2003: 9) demonstrated in their literature review on the CBAs, that these are broadly associated with performance and outcome-orientation.
In the research, the difficulty of comparing the CBAs, due to the heterogeneity of competence concepts, is underlined (Boritz and Carnaghan, 2003). In the international scientific discourse various models were developed in recent years, describing the core principles of CBVET (e.g. Watson, 1991; Deißinger and Hellwig, 2005; Wesselink et al., 2007; Sturing et al., 2011). Among these models, the Revised Model of Comprehensive Competence-Based Vocational Education (Revised CCBE Model) proposed by Sturing et al. (2011) was chosen as the basis of the theoretical framework for this study. This model stands out for its comprehensive nature, underpinned by a robust theoretical foundation and its validated approach in assessing the ‘competentiveness’ of educational programmes (Sturing et al., 2011: 193). Additionally, the model has been successfully applied in different national contexts to investigate the phenomenon of CBVET, which renders it suitable for conducting the comparative analysis within the contexts explored in this research.
Principles and Clusters of the Revised CCBE Model (Sturing et al., 2011; adapted based on Misbah et al., 2020).
Context of the study
Various scholars underline that consideration of context is crucial in comparative methodologies (Sobe and Kowalczyk, 2012; Wahlström et al., 2018; Kosmützky et al., 2020). VET is a specially challenging research subject due to its considerable heterogeneity across different countries, in comparison to other educational sectors (Pilz and Li, 2020). Therefore, it is necessary to reflect how VET is embedded in a broad national context, structurally and organisationally (Pilz, 2012: 562). Although the Russian and Chinese VET systems have different structures, both are school-based and state-driven systems. In the following section, the core features of the national VET systems in China and Russia will be presented.
China
China’s vocational school education is divided into primary, secondary, and higher vocational education (Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China (in brief, MoE of China), 1996: Paragraph 15), which focuses on different educational goals from basic to advanced levels in talent development (Hao, 2012: 8). As the primary vocational education (ISCED 3) exists currently only in several remote regions, the secondary vocational education (ISCED 4) plays a fundamental role in the modern VET system and provides basic vocational education (MoE of China, 2020). Increasingly, a growing cohort of students who have accomplished secondary vocational educational programmes are inclined to pursue advanced studies in higher vocational education rather than entering the labour market (Xu, 2021). The higher vocational education is dedicated to nurturing highly qualified professionals who contribute to the regional economic and social development, as well as meeting the market demands of specific industries (State Council of China, 2019). Consequently, one of its principal attributes is its strong emphasis on employment orientation, which is heavily reliant on the development of competencies (Zhang et al., 2020). Both graduates from senior general high schools and secondary vocational schools are eligible to enrol in the study programmes of higher vocational education (Xu, 2020), with the specialized higher vocational educational programmes (ISCED 5) constituting the predominant majority 5 (see statistic in MoE of China, 2021a).
For the Chinese VET, a state-driven but locally managed governance system exists, with governmental overall planning, industry guidance, and social participation (MoE of China, 2014). The government plays a leading role in guiding, standardising, and supervising the construction of the VET system and deepening the reform of key areas. The organisation of VET activities, and the implementation of reform strategies, is conducted by VET institutions with guidance from both (regional) governments and industries (MoE of China, 2014).
The analysed Chinese VET programmes fall under the category of specialized higher vocational educational programmes (ISCED 5) within the commercial fields. In the field of Accounting, the analysis focused on the programmes of the speciality ‘530302 Big Data and Accounting (2021 version)’, which aim to aim to equip graduates with qualifications as ‘Accounting practitioners’ or ‘Auditing practitioners’ MoE of China, 2021b). In the field of Logistics, the programmes analysed were ‘530802 Modern Logistics Management (2021 version)’, which offer graduates qualifications as practitioners in both ‘Logistics Management’ and ‘Supply Chain Operations’ fields. The programmes of both specialities have an official duration of 3 years (MoE of China, 2021b).
Russia
Initial VET in Russia (so-called Secondary VET) comprises two kinds of programmes: • skilled worker or employee training programmes which correspond to the ISCED level 4 – post-secondary non-tertiary education. • middle-level professional training programmes corresponding to the ISCED level 5 – short-cycle tertiary education (European Training Foundation, 2019b: 5).
Both kinds of programmes can be entered either after basic general education (9 years) or secondary general education (11 years). The educational system provides for a transition opportunity for young people who have completed VET programmes, to the higher academic education. Except for Secondary VET, there are Continuing VET programmes (European Training Foundation, 2019b: 5).
In Russia, VET governance is a sphere of joint jurisdiction of the federal government and the regions. Functioning of the VET system in Russia is mainly the responsibility of the regions; however, normative and legal regulation, as well as the definition of state policy priorities, development strategies and modernisation of the whole VET system remain at the level of federal regulation (Dudyrev et al., 2019: 197). The educational organisations have a relatively high level of autonomy, which among other aspects is reflected in responsibility to develop and approve the curriculum in accordance with the requirements prescribed on the national level (European Training Foundation, 2019a: 6). As for distribution of responsibilities and decision-making between state and non-state actors, there is a clear dominance of the state. Although there are efforts to increase practice-orientation of VET, the VET system until now remains largely school-based with vocational colleges as the main places of learning and training.
The analysed educational programmes of Russian VET belong to the middle-level professional training programmes (ISCED 5). In the field of Accounting, programmes of the following specialisation were analysed: ‘38.02.01 Economics and accounting (by branch)’. Two different qualifications can be archived: ‘Accountant’ or ‘Accountant, Tax Specialist’ (Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation (in brief, MES of Russia), 2018). The investigated programmes in the fields of Logistics belong to specialisation called ‘38.02.03 Operational activity in logistics’. The title of the corresponding qualification to be awarded upon successful completion of the programme is ‘Operational Logistician’ (MES of Russia, 2014). The duration of the programmes depends on the previous level of education and the qualification acquired and ranges from 1 year and 10 months to 3 years and 10 months.
Methodology
Sample Information and Statistics.
The qualitative content analysis method was used in this study to analyse the embedding of the characteristics of the CBA in the curricular documents from both countries. It was proved in a few studies that qualitative content analysis is a well-suited method for curriculum analysis (Levander and Mikkola, 2009; Malekipour et al., 2017; Shkedi, 2009; Pilz et al., 2016; Pilz and Li, 2012). The data analysis in this study followed the procedure of the qualitative content analysis adopted from Kuckartz (2014).
The characteristics of the CBA in curriculum were deductively derived from the principles of the Revised CCBE Model (see Chapter 2) in order to establish corresponding categories for the qualitative content analysis. Further, the category system was refined through inductive adjustments based on the data. Additionally, national-specific characteristics were incorporated during the analysis, considering their relevance to the core concepts of clusters or principles, along with insights from the analysis of discourse in Russian and Chinese scientific literature on the CBA. For instance, cluster 1 summarizes various principles of CBVET that emphasize the establishment of links between VET programmes and the professional sphere. The characteristic ‘Curriculum prescribes that teachers should have a professional experience in the field they teach’ and a corresponding analysis category “professional experience of teachers” was added to cluster 1. This addition was made because the inclusion of teachers’ professional experience in the curriculum facilitates the integration with professional practice. In addition, the content analysis procedure was complemented by analysing the structure of the sampled documents, aiming to investigate the distinctive characteristics of the CBA within the curricula. For instance, the structure of the syllabi was explored, among other factors, in terms of the quantity and distribution of theoretical and practical learning components, as well as the inclusion of anticipated internships.
Presentation of research findings
In this section, we present the results of the analysis of Chinese and Russian curricular documents, at both national and college levels, in a comparative manner, to answer the research question: which CBA features can be identified in the curricular documents of commercial VET in China and Russia, indicating commonalities and particularities in both national contexts? The next first subsection initially presents the overall findings concerning the embedding of the CBA in curricular documents at both national and college levels within a single country context. Following this, the key findings related to the principles defined in the Revised CCBE Model are elaborated upon in subsequent subsections, organised in line with their respective clusters. The layout of the subsequent presentation follows the characteristics of the identified commonalities and particularities of each principle, initiating with the Russian case and subsequently shifting to the Chinese case.
Interrelation between national and college curriculum levels and overall embedding of the competence-based approaches in these curricula
Overall, it can be derived from the national level curricula in the case of China that these national curricula serve as a minimum standard and provide pivotal guidelines on the development of college curricula. Thus, the provisions in the national curricula are often expressed with phrases like ‘basic requirement’, ‘no less than’ or ‘should be’ rather than ‘must be’. Consequently, the features of the CBA can merely be identified to a limited extent in the national level curricula due to their relatively broad formulations. For instance, while there is explicit emphasis on aligning theoretical and practical learning, it still lacks detailed statements on the specific approaches to achieve this alignment. Instead, detailed statements relating to the CBA features can be found more in the intended curricula at the college level. The CBA features from all four clusters are embedded in these curricular documents, but there is still significant variation between different vocational institutions.
In the case of Russia, similarly, national curriculum documents serve as a guideline framework, based on which local curricula are designed. These documents with curricular function regulate not only intended learning outcomes, courses, and disciplines (only in Logistics), but also contain prescriptions for assessment and practical training. Therefore, the CBA features belonging to different clusters were found on both national and local levels of curriculum planning. Furthermore, there is a broad spectrum of national prescriptions, concerning different aspects of planning and implementation of VET processes, related to the CBA. Consequently, these are regulated similarly in curriculum documents of different educational organisations. Therefore, results of the analysis demonstrate, there is little disparity in respect of the embedding of the CBA in curricular documents across different vocational educational organisations in Russia.
Findings concerning cluster 1 – competencies, core tasks, and linkage to labour market
Key Findings of Commonalities and Particularities Related to Principles in Cluster 1.
Key findings related to principle 1 – On the basis of core tasks, working processes and competences (qualification profile)
Regarding the first commonality (see p1-1 in Table 3), both analysed Russian and Chinese curricula are linked in a different way with qualification profiles, so-called occupational standards, or there are prescriptions to provide such an alignment. In both countries, these occupational standards are labour market instruments that describe characteristics of the qualifications necessary to carry out a certain kind of professional activity. In the case of Russia, although the prescription for their use applies to both specialities, their application in the Accounting curricula is more prescriptive: ‘When developing an educational programme, the educational organisation shall form requirements for the results of its development in terms of professional competencies based on professional standards’ (Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation (in brief, MES of Russia), 2018). Further, national curricula of the Accounting specialisation are aligned with professional standards, specifically in terms of intended learning outcomes and working functions which graduates must be able to perform. As for national curricula of Logistics, there is no reference to occupational standards. However, the connection still exists. For instance, while colleges conduct comparisons of requirements of national curricula and occupational standards while developing their programmes. In the case of China, the explicit incorporation of national occupational standards in the curriculum development process is evident in the college-level curricula of both Accounting and Logistics programmes. Generally based on the analysed programmes, the national occupational standards fulfil mainly a dual role in the curriculum development process. Firstly, they serve as a fundamental reference for the initial identification and analysis of the working fields and typical core tasks associated with the roles of accountants and logisticians. Moreover, they provide essential guidance regarding the competence profiles required for these professions. Secondly, the professional qualification examination outlined in the national occupational standards is utilized as a point of reference for the design and assessment of college-level curricula, ensuring alignment and adherence to industry standards.
The second commonality, as listed in Table 3 (see p1-2), is that the curriculum design of the training programmes analysed in both countries centres on competencies, professional tasks, or working processes, especially in professional parts of the programmes. In the Russian case, ‘professional activities’ are applied in curricula in different ways to determine the curriculum elements, to define the phases of practical training and to arrange the intended learning outcomes. Competencies and their elements – knowledge, skills and practical experience – are applied in curriculum design to describe intended learning outcomes of programmes or individual units of curriculum, such as practices, modules, disciplines and courses. In the Chinese case, professional tasks and vocational competencies are a point of reference in curricula of every analysed programme. The results show that the curricular documents contain a table of typical work tasks and vocational competencies. The relationships between professional courses, working fields, and related working processes, are also presented. The construction of elements of professional courses, such as course objectives and teaching content, are based on the analysis of working processes, tasks, and vocational competencies, which are necessary in the relevant working field. It is also explicitly indicated that the vocational competencies serve as the starting point for curriculum development.
Regarding the third commonality (see p1-3 in Table 3), another manner of creating a linkage to the professional practice can be found in curricular prescriptions concerning the involvement of labour market actors and experts in curriculum design and implementation, including assessment processes. Such prescriptions exist in curricula of both countries. In the case of Russia, the prescriptions are more precise. Here, it is prescribed, depending on the specific document, that employers or their representatives co-develop selected assessment procedures, as well as evaluate designed programmes, or their parts, with a focus on professional modules and practical training. As for curriculum implementation, the role of employers concentrates on two significant aspects: assessment and practical training. In the case of China, companies also participate in some parts of practical training serving as a place of practice and providing supervision. In addition, curricula prescribe participation of employers and experts as part-time teachers, who are involved in the implementation and assessment process of practical training activities in college.
A further specific common CBA feature of principle 1 (see p1-4 in Table 3), found in both Chinese and Russian curricular documents, is the actualisation of the curriculum with requirements of the (local) labour market, employers’ needs and developments in praxis. In the Russian case, it is prescribed that curricula should be developed and annually adapted. In Chinese curricular documents, it is stated that vocational colleges should inform themselves about labour market demands and development trends of regional industry, mainly through market research on industries and companies, cooperation with company experts, and also follow-up research on graduates.
The last common CBA feature of principle 1 (see p1-5 in Table 3) presented in both Russian and Chinese curricula is requirements toward the educators responsible for professional parts of the programme. It is prescribed in the curriculum documents of both countries, that this group of educators should have professional experience in the occupational field for which they prepare their students, namely, accounting or logistics.
Key findings related to principle 2 – use of vocational problems
With respect to the use of vocational problems (see p2-1 in Table 3), which should be central in learning and assessment, evidence is found in curricular documents of both countries. However, there are differences in how, and to what extent vocational problems are used in curricula of the specialities. In the case of Russia, the organisation of learning around professional problems is foreseen in the curriculum design of the professional cycle, which constitutes less than half of the whole programme time. Here, professional modules, and their structural units, represent curriculum elements formed around professional problems. Furthermore, content elements of practices (as well parts of the modules) are structured into themes and sections, which represent vocational situations. In addition, curricula prescribe different forms assessment orientated on vocational problems.
Chinese curricula explicitly prescribe facilitation of students’ competence in solving professional problems: ‘[…] the starting point of this course is to cultivate student’s competence to solve practical problems’ (Accounting Training Programme, vocational college B). In different curricular documents, training activities around certain vocational problems are described. Some vocational problems are built into the course structure; some are described as learning contexts or core issues of courses to be solved. The emphasis on vocational problems in the assessment is scarcely addressed in the analysed documents.
Furthermore, in addition to curriculum design, guidelines for arranging learning activities centred around professional scenarios or problems can be discovered within methodological recommendations for organizing teaching and learning processes in both national contexts.
Key findings related to principle 3 – different authentic vocational situations for learning activities
Regarding the 3rd principle, these different types of meaningful authentic situations for learning activities primarily involve practical training, providing students with an opportunity to gain work experience. These are envisaged in all Russian and Chinese programmes investigated, both inside the colleges and outside in companies (see p3-1 in Table 3). However, the greater part of practical learning arrangements takes place in colleges.
Connection between theory and practice – also emphasised in the principle – is prescribed in different curricula documents in both countries. In the Russian case, it is either implicated through the design of the programme structure, where different curriculum elements (modules, disciplines, and interdisciplinary courses) contain thematically connected theoretical and practical sections, or explicitly prescribed. In the Chinese case, this characteristic is also prominent in almost every document of both Accounting and Logistics training programmes. The alignment of theory and practice is emphasised not only in the aspect of the curriculum design but also in the suggestion of teaching practice in classroom.
Findings concerning cluster 2 – competence-based teaching and learning
Key Findings of Commonalities and Particularities Related to Principles in Cluster 2.
Key findings related to principle 4 – integration of competence elements
Regarding the 4th principle, the first recognised difference relates to combination of competence elements in both Russian and Chinese curricula. In the Chinese curricula analysed, knowledge, skills, and attitudes are regarded in many curricula as competence elements. However, in the Russian curricula, attitudes are not presented as a competence component. Instead, professional competencies consist of knowledge, skills and practical experiences, while general competencies only of knowledge and skills.
The prescription of the integration of competence elements is also differently emphasised in the Russian and Chinese curricula. In the Chinese curricula, there is often explicit emphasis on the integration of competence elements in the learning process, but less so in the assessment process. This indicates that the separate assessment of competence elements is still dominant. In contrast to the Chinese case, no explicit prescriptions about the integration of competence elements in the learning process could be found in Russian curricula. Competence definition in some Russian documents, however, indicates the integration of its elements implicitly, which is necessary to perform a task or solve a problem. As for assessment, it can be distinguished between assessments which focus on individual competence elements as well as on holistic assessment of competencies through performance.
Key findings related to principle 6 – facilitation of self-reflection
With respect to the 6th principle, no explicit prescriptions concerning stimulation of self-reflection could be found in the Russian curricular documents, except for two programmes. In one of the programmes it is described as follows: ‘An open and varied educational environment is to be created […] allowing them (students) to experience activities, reflecting on their personal characteristics at this stage and deficits of knowledge, abilities, skills, and competencies [...]’ (Basic Educational Programme Logistics, vocational college I). Further, several kinds of provisions, which could above other reasons be directed on stimulation of self-reflection implicitly, were identified.
In comparison, both explicit statements and implicit didactic recommendations about the facilitation of students’ self-reflection are found in the Chinese curricular documents. For example, there is explicit prescriptions requiring teachers to encourage students to reflect on the learning tasks and learning processes in written form, or using digital learning formats, such as ‘an emphasis is placed on the development of students’ competence by using IT to solve practical problems with independent thinking, […], and self-reflection’ (Logistics Training Programme, vocational college E).
Key findings related to principle 7 – facilitation of self-steering
Regarding the 7th principle, the results on the Russian and Chinese curricula show notable differences. In the sample, explicit provisions were only found in the curricula of several Russian colleges, specifically requiring that individual students should be given opportunities to decide for themselves what they want to learn and how: ‘[...] students may propose modifications to an already approved educational programme; [...], propose forms of classroom and extracurricular activities taking into account their capabilities and abilities; propose forms of independent work’ (Regulations On The Organization And Implementation Of Educational Activity, vocational college D). However, a number of implicit indicators, such as prescribed learning forms – independent work – were found in the curricula of all colleges and programmes. Practical sessions and laboratory work are further organisational forms of learning activities that are parts of every educational programme in the sample and that aim to promote students’ self-direction of the learning process.
In the curricula of Chinese colleges, various explicit and implicit manifestations can be identified. Following the national curricula, the exploration of innovative autonomous learning models is anticipated in some curricular documents at the college level, as the following sentence in one college’s curricula indicates ‘[…] through the use of online open courses, the combination of online learning and classroom learning cultivates students’ independent learning abilities’ (Accounting Training Programme, vocational college I). The establishment of an interactive learning platform ‘e-school’ is encouraged as an example to promote collaborative learning and to enhance students’ ability to learn independently. It is also suggested in some documents that teachers can plan learning time and space for self-steering and independent learning, according to the characteristics of students.
Key findings related to principle 8 – flexibility of training programme
As per the Revised CCBE Model, the flexibility of training programme pertains to the capacity for individualized modifications to accommodate student’s needs. Although the overall curriculum structure and duration of the Russian vocational educational programmes analysed are fixed, limited opportunities regarding time, didactic and place flexibility could be identified. Some were already described regarding the principles of individual approach and self-steering. Further flexibility, although very limited, is found with respect to assessment, elective elements of the curriculum, foreseen by some programmes in the sample, as well as places of learning.
In the Chinese college-level curricula, explicit manifestations of flexibility are mostly related to didactic aspects. For instance, teachers have the freedom in their courses to determine the teaching methods or approaches to a certain extent. Similar to the Russian case, some Chinese vocational institutions also take time flexibility into account, for example, allowing for four flexible course hours in the schedule to better adapt the teaching plan and learning processes in an actual situation. However, the flexibility of learning places is rare manifested in the Chinese case.
Key findings related to principle 9 – facilitation of individual approach and the multifaceted role of teacher as mentor, expert and coach
Regarding the 9th principle, Russian curricular documents don’t contain explicit recommendations or prescriptions for the customised adaptation of teaching guidance to meet the needs and interests of individual students. However, there are certain provisions allowing, to a limited extent, individualisation of learning process and consideration of specific needs for selected students or groups. Individual learning plans are utilized to enable personalized learning paths, but they have limitations, such as the need for advance planning and bureaucratic procedures, which restrict their flexibility in implementation. Moreover, the curricula of most programmes do emphasise the importance of accommodating the special needs of students with disabilities, but mainly by creating an appropriate learning environment rather than by adapting the content or pace of learning. Thus, the Russian curricula analysed neither implicitly nor explicitly prescribe the consideration of individual needs of students as a universal didactic principle guiding teaching processes. Additionally, the documents do not extensively address the role of teachers in vocational educational processes.
In contrast to the Russian case, many Chinese college-level curricula (especially in the Accounting training programmes) address it explicitly, that ‘according to the student’s learning attitude, abilities, previous knowledge, etc., students are taught in groups in some professional core courses […] to meet the diversified needs of students at different levels’ (Accounting Training Programme, vocational college D). However, it should be noticed that these statements imply more the consideration of the needs of students’ groups rather than individual students. In some curricula, the transition of the teacher’s role from transmitter of knowledge to moderator of student-centred learning processes and activities, is stated as an emphasised approach for the improvement of teaching quality of teachers.
Key findings related to principle 11 – facilitation of cooperation in learning and assessment
Explicit suggestions about motivating students to cooperate in learning and assessment are found in the Chinese curricular documents. For instance, the improvement of the consciousness of team work was emphasised in the objectives of many professional courses. Cooperative learning forms within a pre-set context or learning scenario is promoted explicitly, such as in one curriculum prescribed ‘using situational teaching methods to cultivate student’s strong organisational coordination skills and teamwork skills [...]’ (Accounting Training Programme, vocational college E). In addition, it is stated in the curricula of many colleges that students should be encouraged to change their learning style from individual to collaborative learning, using internet-based learning resources.
Although the stimulation of cooperation is not stated in the Russian curriculum documents explicitly, the majority of curriculum documents contain provisions prescribing the use of different forms of learning and assessment where students have to work in groups and interact with each other, such as role-playing and imitations games, discussions and debates, and group projects. In selected curricula, use of these methods is directly underlined in connection to implementation of the CBA.
National specific characteristics of the competence-based approaches
Two further characteristics, which in the Russian case were regarded as national specific features are 1) use of interactive, active and project-orientated forms of learning and 2) integrated development and assessment of general and professional competencies. The first of these features intersects with facilitation of student-centred learning underlined in the Model in the 9th principle, as well as with respect to 11th principle. Use of various interactive and active methods and learning activities, such as business games, computer simulations, lessons-conferences, and so forth, is prescribed in various curricular documents and is presented often as a central means of implementation of the CBA.
Findings concerning cluster 3 – competence-based assessment
Key Findings of Commonalities and Particularities Related to Principle in Cluster 3.
Key findings related to principle 5 – regular assessment with focus on competence development
In the curriculum documents of both countries, different forms of summative and formative assessment are prescribed (see p5-1 in Table 5). Therefore, students should be assessed continuously during the course progression as well as at the end of the disciplines and modules (in Russia) and at the end of the whole programme. In the most of Russian curricula analysed, an assessment at the beginning of the learning process, is prescribed or recommended.
With regard to assessment concentrated on vocational practice, such forms of assessment are integrated in the programmes in both countries (see p5-2 in Table 5). In Russian curricular documents, provisions regarding practice-orientated forms of assessment, procedures and tasks are mainly concentrated on the interim, and ongoing assessment in the professional cycle of the programmes as well in the final assessment procedures. For instance, a special form of assessment – a Qualification Exam – is orientated on assessment of the readiness to perform a certain professional activity, foresees inter alia solving of professional competence-based complex tasks, creation of the conditions as much as possible approximated to real professional environment, and usually involves participation of employers. In general, various Russian curricular documents describe a two-fold goal of the assessment: assessment of mastering of the content of the vocational educational programme, and assessment of competencies. The Qualification Exam is specially emphasised as an assessment form focused on development of competencies.
In the Chinese curricular documents, it is stated, especially with reference to the professional core courses, that students’ performance and their ability to discover, analyse, and solve professional practical problems in typical work situations, should be assessed during the learning process. Moreover, it is prescribed in the curricular documents of several vocational institutions that the evaluation should base on the student’s accuracy and proficiency in applying knowledge in practice. Therefore, although no explicit prescriptions that assessment should concentrate on development of competencies were found in the analysed documents, the assessment involving vocational practice and demonstration of proficiency indicate implicitly that there is a focus on competencies in these forms of assessment.
Findings concerning cluster 4 – general competencies
Key Results of Commonalities and Particularities Related to Principle in Cluster 4.
Key findings related to principle 10 – development of general competencies
Both the Russian and Chinese curricula prescribe the development of such a group of competencies explicitly, so-called general competencies (see p10-1 in Table 6).
In the Russian documents, the general competencies are defined as competencies that are not connected to a specific vocation but are necessary and useful for every kind of professional activity (cross-occupational competencies), as well as competencies necessary for personal development, success, and well-being. Similarly, in most Chinese curricular documents, general competencies are defined as kinds of cross-occupational, transferable, and those necessary to promote an individual’s development and independent life-long learning. Yet, in some curricular documents, the general competencies are referred directly to the comprehensive personal qualities, which include ideological and political, cultural, professional, as well as physical and psychological qualities.
Although the development of general competencies is emphasised in both Russian and Chinese documents, the composition of these general competencies varies in both countries, even in different specialities. The difference between the two national contexts is that in Russia, in all programmes of the same speciality – Accounting or Logistics – the same set of general competencies are defined as learning outcomes. However, in China, there are different constellations of general competencies in different programmes of the same speciality.
Discussion and interpretation of research findings
As presented, the CBA, analysed on the basis of all four clusters, is manifested to a greater or lesser extent in the curricular documents of both countries. The principles in cluster 1 are found to be embedded most comprehensively in the curricula analysed, due to their relation to curriculum design. In comparison to that, the didactic-methodological principles of the Revised CCBE Model (cluster 2) are less anchored in the curricular documents of both countries. Yet the differences in their degree of the embedding in both countries are evident. Given the breadth of the results presented above, in the following, the discussion of the central results and the exploration of underlying reasoning for identified commonalities and particularities, are consolidated into three key points to highlight the important findings.
Key point 1: Dominant embedding of cluster 1 – competencies, core tasks and linkage to labour market – in the curricula of both countries
As the results show, the principles of cluster 1 of the model, which are focused on the connection of VET programmes to the practice and demand of the labour market through various instruments, are broadly embedded in the VET curricula. This finding reflects the priority directions of current reforms in the field of VET in both countries, above all the effort to narrow the gap between the labour market requirements and VET system.
In Russia, national programmes for education, implemented through the project approach, play a central role in the course of strategic planning and modernisation of the Russian VET. The most current priority policy areas determined by the Education National Project for 2019-2024 concern: 1) modernisation of VET through the creation of adaptive, practice-orientated and flexible VET offers; 2) promoting talents and abilities of the young population in VET; 3) facilitation of digital education.
The key priorities of earlier programmes, and projects of the previous years were bringing vocational education in line with the needs of the labour market, strengthening of linkages between the education and professional spheres, stronger consolidation of the efforts of government business and VET to provide better access to VET (Abankina et al., 2017; European Training Foundation, 2019a). With respect to the objective of the strengthening of practice-orientation in VET, there are efforts to implement elements of the dual training system in Secondary VET in the recent years. Application of WorldSkills Standards, modernisation of educational standards, and development of the National Qualification Framework, among others aimed at bridging the spheres of labour and education, thus providing an important reference point for adjustment of (VET) educational content and objectives. These are important instruments aimed at assisting the realisation of the stated goals, in particular related to convergence of VET and labour market (Dudyrev et al., 2018).
Similarly, a series of top-down reform measures aimed at the macro, meso, and micro levels of the Chinese VET system have been initiated by the government for further development of VET, since the ‘Implementation Plan for the National Vocational Education Reform’ was released (State Council of China, 2019). One of the main reform focuses that reflects the embedding of cluster 1, is immersed in facilitating the industry-education integration. For this purpose, a number of well-developed enterprises are promoted to participate in the VET educational processes. For example, the construction of campus practical training bases in cooperation with enterprises, is regarded as a measure to guarantee this integration (State Council of China, 2019). Moreover, selected enterprises are actively involved in pilot initiatives to implement the ‘1 + X’ (one diploma + multiple vocational skill level certificates) certificate system (State Council of China, 2019), which refers to an innovative approach, aiming to align educational standards and occupational standards and to foster collaboration between vocational colleges and industry partners (Yang, 2020). The collaboration is expected to achieve sustainably through the joint training from both vocational colleges and enterprises, since the ‘Chinese modern dual apprenticeship’ model has been launched countrywide (Zhang and Cerdin, 2020; MoE of China, 2019). This reform measure is conducive to bridging the gap between school-based training and employment in the labour market (Zhao, 2018).
Thus, in both countries, there were efforts to incorporate dual forms of VET and therefore ensure employers’ participation in VET financing and implementation. Although VET systems are dominated by school-based provisions, the results show that there are a range of opportunities created, through which programmes can be synchronised with the labour market needs, and therefore how the CBA can be strengthened. Involving employers and labour market experts in various ways as well as using labour market instruments in curriculum design seem to be essential instruments to make investigated commercial VET programmes ‘competence-based’. Since commercial sectors are very dynamic and continuously evolving, these instruments allow the VET programmes to alight more closely with the current and emerging skill demands of these industries.
Key point 2: Limited representation and different integration of the principles of cluster 2 – competence-based teaching and learning – in the curricula of both countries
Although the embedding of didactic-methodological principles of the CBA is sparse in comparison to the CBA in cluster 1 in curricular documents of both countries, it varies in different principles between Chinese and Russian cases.
Didactic principles as guidelines, fundamental patterns, which should guide the entire activity of the teacher, are not explicitly stated in the Russian documents analysed. Probably, these were part of further documentation of the colleges, which was not available for analysis (see section Limitations). Although the Russian curricula do not explicitly focus on didactical prescriptions for implementation, they do however emphasise the importance of interactive and active learning methods, which describe performance, active participation, engaging in practice, and explicitly binds them to the realisation of the CBA. Furthermore, there are various implicit prescriptions in the analysed documents, which indicate specific principles of the didactic work of the teachers. To limited degree different didactic principles of the CBA, as defined in the Model, were found in the curricular documents. These findings are supported by the scientific discussion on the CBA in Russia. Various researchers, who focused their work on conceptualisation of the CBA and its vision in the Russian educational context, underlined the importance of the educational approaches as presented in the Revised CCBE Model. Thus, along with the distinct practical orientation of the learning process, the importance of an active student role, self-steering, self-reflection and flexibility of the learning processes are emphasised. For instance, Habibullina (2007: 14) emphasises that implementation of the CBA presupposes an active role of students, openness of the learning process and freedom for students to determine their own learning process, as well as formulation of a reflective position toward themselves and the subject of activity. Vasilyeva (2018) further underlines that the existing standpoint regarding the understanding of the principles of the CBA in the Russian educational context, and principles of the CBA, is consonant with the basic ideas of the humanistic paradigm in national education. She underlines that meta principles of the CBA are the principles of humanistic and practical orientation. These may include: the value of an individual and focus of pedagogical work on the individual’s self-actualisation, self-determination of students regarding own action, priority of upbringing over education, integrity of the educational process, reflection in assessment, students’ autonomy and development of competencies through solving practical challenges in training (Vasilyeva, 2018). Thus, there is a strong concordance between these ideas and Models’ understanding of the CBA, also found in curriculum documents. However, the realisation in practice of these principles should be further explored, in the analysis of curriculum implementation.
In comparison with Russian curricula, the principles of self-steering, self-reflection, and collaborative learning, are manifested explicitly in a range of Chinese college-level curricula. Also, several explicit statements about the transition of teacher’s role can be found in curricula, which aim to achieve student-centred teaching and learning processes. This could be explained through one of the current reform trends which focusses on the reform of ‘teachers, teaching materials, and teaching methods’ (State Council of China, 2019). This reform concerns three core questions – ‘who will teach’, ‘what to learn’ and ‘how to teach’ – that directly affect the quality of VET (Wang, 2019). The requirements for educators specified in curricula, lie not only in their own backgrounds and qualifications, but also their multifaced roles during the teaching and learning processes, which conform to the 9th principle of the Model. The promotion of collaborative learning, task-orientated, and project-based situational teaching, which are regarded as common reformative teaching methods (Wang and Long, 2019), are also widely manifested in many Chinese curricula. In this sense, the didactic-methodological features of the CBA can be reflected through these above-mentioned reformative measures. However, these manifestations in curricular documents are mostly recommendations and suggestions rather than mandatory regulations, due to the restricted infrastructure and construction conditions for innovative development in VET institutions. As the reform is still in the exploratory stage, VET institutions are striving, through their own measures or attempts, to achieve the reform goals, so the didactic-methodological features of the CBA related statements in the college-level curricula are certainly not identical and comprehensive. Concerning the other didactic-methodological features of the CBA like the facilitation of flexibility and individual approach, the manifestation is rarely identified in Chinese curricular documents. As the collective consciousness, rooted in Chinese culture, has penetrated classroom culture early on, the pursuit and fulfilment of individual demands and interests are not encouraged. Instead, individuals are required to fit into groups, follow the norms of their collectives, and regard group goals as personal goals (Jian, 2009). All the limited evidence found in the curricular documents tends to suggest that the flexibility elements and the adjustments to students’ learning needs in the curricula apply to groups of students rather than individual students. Balancing the ingrained collectivism from Chinese culture, and individualism introduced from the foreign culture, in educational processes is a pivotal but challenging mission for all policymakers and stakeholders in the Chinese education system (Zhu and Li, 2019). Hence, even though it is not identifiable from curricular documents to what extent these intended CBA statements are realised, it is certain that the basic ideas of various statements included in curricular documents, are not contradictory to the theoretical Revised CCBE Model.
Key point 3: Heterogeneity in embedding the competence-based approaches in the curricula at the college level
From the results compared, it can be seen that curricular documents are intensively adapted at the college level in both countries, although national curricula have been introduced. More significant heterogeneity of the embedding of the CBA principles exists between the Chinese college-level curricula than between Russian curricula.
This apparent heterogeneity in embedding the CBA in Chinese college-level curricula can be explained by different aspects of the VET system. Essentially, the main function of VET in China, which aims to serve the local economy and labour market, and its decentralised governance system, determine the heterogeneity to a great extent in different regions and colleges (Zhang, 2021). The VET governance system in China is state driven but locally managed (see section Context of the study - China). While the central government is responsible for top-level design of the VET system, the provincial governments possess certain autonomy to explore and promote region-specific construction and implementation of VET in accordance with the needs of regional economic and social development (MoE of China, 2014).
In this context, the state-established curriculum functions solely as a baseline requirement applicable to all VET institutions. Under the guidance of provincial authorities, individual regions are entrusted with the task of devising and implementing their own specialized VET programmes and curricula tailored to their specific regional strengths and industrial demands. Consequently, the embedding of the CBA within curricula exhibits a notable degree of heterogeneity throughout the developmental stages. For example, this heterogeneity is evident in the diverse approaches taken to inform the labour market demands and to synchronize the VET programmes with local enterprises (pertaining to principle 1, see section Findings concerning cluster 1), as observed in the Chinese college-level curricula.
Moreover, the different development of VET institutions and their teaching teams has an impact on the embedding of the CBA into college-level curricula. Well-established institutions can receive more financial support and participate preferentially in government-led curriculum reform projects (e.g. Li et al., 2022). These conditions can serve as one of the inherent factors contributing to the variability in embedding the CBA within college-level curricula among VET institutions in China. For instance, VET institutions with advanced practical training equipment or on-campus facilities tend to place a strong emphasis on aligning theoretical and practical learning (concerning principle 3, see section Fingdings concerning cluster 1) or inspire their teachers in facilitating students’ autonomous learning using innovative technologies (concerning principle 7, see section Findings concerning cluster 2).
The homogeneity of curricula and therefore the embedding of the CBA in curricular documents across colleges in Russia could be partially related to their coping strategies for managing continuing reformation in VET. The adaptation of the national curriculum – educational standards – is an important instrument in Russia for introduction of educational innovations to VET. Therefore, vocational colleges are challenged to constantly adapt their programmes according to the newly introduced standards which, as in the case of Accounting programmes were already renewed twice since 2011. Furthermore, these changes are profound, including transition towards competencies as intended learning outcomes, and elimination of the content component, which is delegated to the colleges to formulate. In addition to the renewed national curricula, very detailed exemplary curricula for VET programmes are currently being introduced on the national level which, as regulations recommend, should be used as orientation while developing own curricula. The curriculum homogeneity therefore indicates that although the colleges are given freedom to adapt their curriculum to a significant degree, variations are minor, because they integrate national prescriptions without significant adaptation, or are strongly orientated to the available exemplary curriculum. Such strategy to manage continual curriculum changes has been related to ‘reform fatigue’ or ‘change fatigue’ which has been discussed in research (Dilkes et al., 2014) and is a result of intensive changes in education policy over a short time. However, more evidence should be gathered through interviews at the level of the VET institutions to support or reject such an argument. In addition, the differences between Accounting and Logistics programmes in respect of principles of the CBA can be partly explained by the fact that the national curriculum for Accounting programmes belongs to a newer generation of standards.
Limitations
Although the study allowed for an in-depth investigation and comparison of the embedding of the CBA at the level of curriculum design in China and Russia, some limitations should be highlighted for consideration in future studies on this topic. Even though the chosen research method for analysing intended curricula – qualitative comparative content analysis – proved to be well-suited for curriculum analysis in our investigation, a further adaptation of the data analysis and collection methods can be recommended for future research. Combining qualitative content analysis of the documents with qualitative interviews with stakeholders involved in curriculum design in both national contexts, would allow for a deeper understanding of the specific features of the CBA in the curricula, especially those related to the process of curriculum development.
Another limitation of this study concerns the interpretation of results, due to challenges in data collection, which was only partly possible through direct contact with colleges, and was partly based on web research. In several cases, it was not possible to summarise conclusions for all colleges, because different – in a qualitative and quantitative sense – sets of documents were collected from vocational institutions. Moreover, it should be emphasised that due to the limited number of colleges analysed, the results cannot be considered representative of the whole national context and therefore reflect only the situation at the colleges in the sample. Both countries have a vast territory with economically and culturally very heterogeneous regions. We therefore recommend that in future studies additional regions and vocational educational organisations can be considered, and the methods of data collection and analysis can be adapted in accordance with the above limitations.
Conclusion
This study investigated the embedding of the CBA in the curricula of Russian and Chinese commercial VET programmes, by using qualitative content analysis, based on the revised theoretical model adapted from Sturing et al. (2011), from a comparative perspective. The main comparative results findings of our curriculum analysis reveal that the dominant focus of embedding the CBA in the curricula of both countries is to align with the labour market, while guiding principles of teaching and learning in CBVET are less prominent in the curricula. Furthermore, significant variations exist in the incorporation of the CBA features related to competence-based teaching, learning, and assessment, as well as general competencies, across the curricula of the two countries. Notably, the Chinese VET programmes demonstrate a higher degree of individualization in embedding the CBA within college-level curricula, whereas the Russian case exhibits a higher level of standardization in integrating the CBA based on their national curricula.
These research findings sharpened the understanding of the CBVET in the chosen national and local contexts and enriched the knowledge of the incorporation of the CBA in curricula as a worldwide trend in VET reformation. Furthermore, by comparing the embedding of the CBA in the Chinese and Russian curricula in international scientific discourse and its further interpretation within their respective national contexts, it can be observed that the same concept, such as competence orientation in VET, may manifest quite differently in diverse contexts. As a result, the findings derived from this comparative curriculum analysis can offer evidence-based insights that might prompt policymakers, educators, and other relevant stakeholders to reflect on the practical implementation of such global reformative strategies within their indigenous settings. This, in turn, aids them in making informed decisions concerning the enhancement of both curriculum development and its implementation.
In light of the present research findings, the subsequent phase of this research will delve further into the actual implementation of the CBA in classroom practices within the targeted VET programmes. This will enable a more comprehensive examination of how CBA is put into practice within the pedagogical processes in commercial VET contexts in both countries.
The study further demonstrated that the chosen analytical framework can be useful for researching and comparing the introduction of the CBA into curricular documents whether it is well adapted to national contexts. Moreover, the interpretation of results through a closer look at a range of factors determining and influencing national VET systems, is essential in understanding the results of such investigations.
Footnotes
Declaration of conflicting interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This work was supported by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research [reference no.01BF18001A and no.01BF18001B].
