In the present work, the silica blocks with a ceramic-polymer dual network in nanoscale were obtained by sintering of the silica nanopowder doped with 1.0 wt% of Al2O3, ZrSiO4 or TiO2 nanoparticles. Polymer infiltrated ceramic network samples were fabricated by infiltration of the methyl methacrylate monomer into the silica porous structure, followed by polymerisation at an elevated temperature. The porous structure of the sintered blocks were analysed using different models including the BET, BJH, t-plot, as-plot, Horvath–Kawazoe and excess surface work. The results showed that the pores formed in the blocks are interconnected in a slit-like form that are necessary for the formation of the dual network structure. The results of the excess surface work model showed that due to the doping, the change of the chemical potential of the surface (Δμ0) and consequently the excess surface work (φ) decrease due to the increase of the polar functional groups (OH groups) attached to the surface of the nano-SiO2. The significant increase of the surface functional groups was also confirmed by IR spectroscopy. XRD patterns revealed that the addition of 1.0 wt% of an Al2O3 dopant to the nano-SiO2 and its sintering did not produce a crystalline phase and finally resulted in the formation of the transparent polymer infiltrated ceramic network. It was also found that the Vickers hardness of the polymer infiltrated ceramic network samples reinforced with Al2O3 or ZrSiO4 with a polymer content of 41 and 39 wt% was in the range of 2.5–3.4 and 3.9–4.1 Gpa, respectively, which were comparable to the human tooth enamel.
HampeRLümkemannNSenerB, et al.The effect of artificial aging on Martens hardness and indentation modulus of different dental CAD/CAM restorative materials. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater2018; 86: 191–198.
2.
Herráez-GalindoCRizo-GorritaMMaza-SolanoS, et al.A review on CAD/CAM yttria-stabilized tetragonal zirconia polycrystal (Y-TZP) and polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) and their biological behavior. Polymers (Basel)2022; 14: 906–913.
3.
IkemotoSNagamatsuYMasakiC, et al.Development of zirconia-based polymer-infiltrated ceramic network for dental restorative material. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater2024; 150: 106320.
4.
MaryamnegariMNateghiSRM, et al.Effect of sintering and infiltration conditions on nanoscale dual network SiO2/polymethyl metacrylate composites mimicking human enamel. J Dentistry2022; 126: 104311.
5.
DingHTsoiJKHKanCW, et al.A simple solution to recycle and reuse dental CAD/CAM zirconia block from its waste residuals. J Prosthodont Res2021; 65: 311–320.
6.
VulovićSStančićIPopovacA, et al.Surface roughness evaluation of different novel CAD/CAM dental materials. Tribo Mater2022; 1: 55–60.
7.
ElraggalAAfifiRRAlamoushRA, et al.Effect of acidic media on flexural strength and fatigue of CAD-CAM dental materials. Dental Mater2023; 39: 57–69.
8.
YinRJangYSLeeMH, et al.Comparative evaluation of mechanical properties and wear ability of five CAD/CAM dental blocks. Materials2019; 12: 2252–2266.
9.
ZhangYRDuWZhouXD, et al.Review of research on the mechanical properties of the human tooth. Inter J Oral Sci2014; 6: 61–69.
10.
YuBAhnJSLeeYK. Measurement of translucency of tooth enamel and dentin. Acta Odontol Scand2009; 67: 57–64.
11.
CuiBLiJWangH, et al.Mechanical properties of polymer-infiltrated-ceramic (sodium aluminum silicate) composites for dental restoration. J Dent2017; 62: 91–97.
12.
WuZWeiDTianJ, et al.Quantitative analysis of the color in six CAD-CAM dental materials of varied thickness and surface roughness: an in vitro study. J Prosthetic Dentistry2024; 131: e1–e9.
13.
MontazerianMBainoFFiumeE, et al.Glass-ceramics in dentistry: fundamentals, technologies, experimental techniques, applications, and open issues. Prog Mater Sci2023; 132: 101023.
14.
SrichumpongTPintasiriSHenessG, et al.The influence of yttria-stabilised zirconia and cerium oxide on the microstructural morphology and properties of a mica glass-ceramic for restorative dental materials. J Asian Cer Soc2021; 9: 926–933.
15.
OkadaKIsobeTKatsumataKI, et al.Porous ceramics mimicking nature - preparation and properties of microstructures with unidirectionally oriented pores. Sci Tech Adv Mater2011; 12: 064701.
16.
TribstJPMEtoeharnowoLTadrosM, et al.The influence of pre-heating the restoration and luting agent on the flexural strength of indirect ceramic and composite restorations. Biomater Investig Dent2023; 10: 2279066.
17.
HenriquesBSoaresDSilvaFS. Microstructure, hardness, corrosion resistance and porcelain shear bond strength comparison between cast and hot pressed CoCrMo alloy for metal-ceramic dental restorations. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater2012; 12: 83–92.
18.
LiJZhangXHCuiBC, et al.Mechanical performance of polymer-infiltrated zirconia ceramics. J Dentistry2017; 58: 60–66.
19.
SantosFBrancoAPolidoM, et al.Comparative study of the wear of the pair human teeth/Vita Enamic® vs commonly used dental ceramics through chewing simulation. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater2018; 88: 251–260.
20.
ChoiBJYoonSImYW, et al.Uniaxial/biaxial flexure strengths and elastic properties of resin-composite block materials for CAD/CAM. Dental Mater2019; 35: 389–401.
21.
AlgharaibehSWanHAl-FodehR, et al.Fabrication and mechanical properties of biomimetic nacre-like ceramic/polymer composites for chairside CAD/CAM dental restorations. Dental Mater2022; 38: 121–132.
22.
ByeonSMSongJJ. Mechanical properties and microstructure of the leucite-reinforced glass-ceramics for dental CAD/CAM. J Dental Hygiene Sci2018; 18: 42–49.
23.
de MendoncaAFShahmoradiMde GouvêaCVD, et al.Microstructural and mechanical characterization of CAD/CAM materials for monolithic dental restorations. J Prosthodontics2019; 28: e587–e594.
24.
AlfouzanAFAl-OtaibiHNLabbanN, et al.Influence of thickness and background on the color changes of CAD/CAM dental ceramic restorative materials. Mater Res Express2020; 7: 055402.
25.
WuZShiALiangQ, et al.Aesthetic restoration of anterior teeth with monolithic self-glazed zirconia crowns via a completely digital workflow: a clinical case report. Adv Appl Cer2020; 119: 1–6.
MachryRVBorgesALSPereiraGKR, et al.Influence of the foundation substrate on the fatigue behavior of bonded glass, zirconia polycrystals, and polymer infiltrated ceramic simplified CAD-CAM restorations. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater2021; 117: 104391.
28.
TokunagaJIkedaHNagamatsuY, et al.Wear of polymer-infiltrated ceramic network materials against enamel. Materials2022; 15: ma15072435.
29.
IkedaHKawajiriYSodeyamaMK, et al.A SiO2/pHEMA-based polymer-infiltrated ceramic network composite for dental restorative materials. J Composites Sci2022; 6: jcs6010017.
30.
WangHCuiBLiJ, et al.Mechanical properties and biocompatibility of polymer infiltrated sodium aluminum silicate restorative composites. J Adv Cer2017; 6: 73–79.
31.
ColdeaASwainMVThielN. Mechanical properties of polymer-infiltrated-ceramic-network materials. Dental Mater2013; 29: 419–426.
LiWSunJ. Effects of ceramic density and sintering temperature on the mechanical properties of a novel polymer-infiltrated ceramic-network zirconia dental restorative (filling) material. Medical Sci Monitor2018; 24: 3068–3076.
34.
KawajiriYIkedaHNagamatsuY, et al.PICN nanocomposite as dental CAD/CAM block comparable to human tooth in terms of hardness and flexural modulus. Materials2021; 14: ma14051182.
35.
BabiucIIstocAPerieanuVS, et al.Principles of design and manufacturing of zirconium dioxide infrastructures for fixed prosthetic restoration. Romanian J Rhino2024; 14: 42–49.
36.
AlmejradLAlmansourABartlettD, et al.CAD/CAM leucite-reinforced glass-ceramic for simulation of attrition in human enamel in vitro. Dental Mater2024; 40: 173–178.
37.
BayraktarETTürkmenCAtaliPY, et al.In-vitro evaluation of wear characteristics, microhardness and color stability of dental restorative CAD/CAM materials. Dent Mater J2024; 43: 74–83.
38.
PinargoteNWSYanushevichOKrikheliN, et al.Materials and methods for all-ceramic dental restorations using computer-aided design (CAD) and computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) technologies—a brief review. Dentistry J2024; 12: dj12030047.
39.
KurkluZGBSonkayaE. Comparison of discoloration of ceramic containing 3D printable material and CAD/CAM blocks. Dent Mater J2024; 43: 28–35.
40.
KwonYSKimJHLeeH, et al.Strength-limiting damage and defects of dental CAD/CAM full-contour zirconia ceramics. Dental Mater2024; 40: 653–663.
41.
BeyabanakiEAshtianiREFeyziM, et al.Evaluation of microshear bond strength of four different CAD-CAM polymer-infiltrated ceramic materials after thermocycling. J Prosthodontics2022; 31: 623–628.
42.
IkedaHNagamatsuYShimizuH. Preparation of silica–poly(methyl methacrylate)composite with a nanoscale dual-network structure and hardness comparable to human enamel. Dental Mater2019; 35: 893–899.
43.
SodeyamaMKIkedaHNagamatsuY, et al.Printable PICN composite mechanically compatible with human teeth. J Dent Res2021; 100: 1475–1481.
44.
QianKLiBZhuW, et al.Preliminary evaluates of silica/β-TCP/PLGA microspheres for dentin regeneration in vivo. Adv Appl Cer2020; 119: 357–363.
45.
GalarneauAVillemotFRodriguezJ, et al.Validity of the t-plot method to assess microporosity in hierarchical micro/mesoporous materials. Langmuir2014; 30: 13266–13274.
46.
AnavadyaKKVijayalakshmiU. A comprehensive review of fabrication techniques and their impact on mechanical behaviour and osteoregenerative applications of bioactive inorganic substituents. Mater Res Lett2023; 11: 821–855.
47.
SingKSW. Physisorption of nitrogen by porous materials. J Porous Mater1995; 2: 5–8.
48.
ThommesMKanekoKNeimarkAV, et al.Physisorption of gases, with special reference to the evaluation of surface area and pore size distribution (IUPAC technical report). Pure Appl Chem2015; 87: pac‐2014–1117.
49.
ThommesMSmarslyBGroenewoltM, et al.Adsorption hysteresis of nitrogen and argon in pore networks and characterization of novel micro- and mesoporous silicas. Langmuir2006; 22: 756–764.
50.
ThommesM. Physisorption of gases, with special reference to the evaluation of surface area and pore size distribution (IUPAC technical report). Chem Int2016; 38: 1051–1069.
51.
McLarenRLLaycockCJBrousseauE, et al.Examining slit pore widths within plasma-exfoliated graphitic material utilising Barrett-Joyner-Halenda analysis. New J Chem2021; 45: 12071–12080.
52.
GrosmanAOrtegaC. Capillary condensation in porous materials. Hysteresis and interaction mechanism without pore blocking/percolation process. Langmuir2008; 24: 3977–3986.
53.
BarsottiEPiriM. Effect of pore size distribution on capillary condensation in nanoporous media. Langmuir2021; 37: 2276–2288.
54.
MorishigeK. Revisiting the nature of adsorption and desorption branches: temperature dependence of adsorption hysteresis in ordered mesoporous silica. ACS Omega2021; 6: 15964–15974.
55.
BardestaniRGSPKaliaguineS. Experimental methods in chemical engineering: specific surface area and pore size distribution measurements—BET, BJH, and DFT. Canadian J Chem Eng2019; 97: 2781–2791.
56.
OsterriethJWMRampersadJMaddenD, et al.How reproducible are surface areas calculated from the BET equation?Adv Mater2022; 34: 2201502.
57.
TianYWuJ. A comprehensive analysis of the BET area for nanoporous materials. AIChE J2018; 64: 286–293.
58.
ZouJFanCJiangY, et al.A preliminary study on assessing the Brunauer-Emmett-Teller analysis for disordered carbonaceous materials. Micropor Mesopor Mater2021; 327: 111411.
59.
LukensWWSchmidt-WinkelPZhaoD, et al.Evaluating pore sizes in mesoporous materials: a simplified standard adsorption method and a simplified Broekhoff-de Boer method. Langmuir1999; 15: 5403–5409.
60.
DesmursLGalarneauACammaranoC, et al.Determination of microporous and mesoporous surface areas and volumes of mesoporous zeolites by corrected t-plot analysis. ChemNanoMat2022; 8: e202200051.
61.
JaroniecMKrukMOlivierJP. Standard nitrogen adsorption data for characterization of nanoporous silicas. Langmuir1999; 15: 5410–5413.
62.
UstinovEADoDDJaroniecM. Equilibrium adsorption in cylindrical mesopores: a modified Broekhoff and De Boer theory versus density functional theory. J Phys Chem B2005; 109: 1947–1958.
63.
GalarneauADesplantierDDutartreR, et al.Micelle-templated silicates as a test bed for methods of mesopore size evaluation. Micropor Mesopor Mater1999; 27: 297–308.
64.
SinhaPDatarAJeongC, et al.Surface area determination of porous materials using the Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) method: limitations and improvements. J Phys Chem C2019; 123: 20195–20209.
AdolphsJSetzerMJ. Description of gas adsorption isotherms on porous and dispersed systems with the excess surface work model. J Colloid Interface Sci1998; 207: 349–354.
67.
ChuraevNVStarkeGAdolphsJ. Isotherms of capillary condensation influenced by formation of adsorption films. J Colloid Interface Sci2000; 221: 246–253.
68.
AdolphsJSetzerMJ. A model to describe adsorption isotherms. J Colloid Interface Sci1996; 180: 70–76.
69.
IkedaHMurataTFujinoS. Fabrication and photoluminescence of monolithic silica glass doped with alumina nanoparticles using SiO2-PVA nanocomposite. J Cer Soc Jpn2015; 123: 550–553.
70.
HariyantoBWardaniDAPKurniawatiN, et al.X-ray peak profile analysis of silica by Williamson–Hall and size-strain plot methods. J Phys: Conf Ser2021; 2019: 012106.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
