Studies on gender and leadership to date reveal that structural, psychological, and attitudinal barriers disadvantage women in the workplace. Women who work in outdoor recreation programs also face gender stereotypes related to the perceived appropriateness of the social role they play, and level of physical ability; stereotypes which cause employees and co-workers alike to prefer male leaders. One area of outdoor recreation that requires further investigation is live-in summer camps, because of the more nurturant requirements of leaders in these spaces. This paper documents which qualities residential summer camp staff value in leaders, and hypothesizes whether women who work in the more home-like setting of live-in camps face the same attitudinal and social barriers as women in other areas of outdoor recreation. Analysis yielded a distinct gender bias in favor of men, suggesting that even when a more nurturant environment is required, people still perceive men to be the most appropriate leaders. This pervasive gender bias confirms a patriarchal understanding of leadership and the legacy of historical gender roles even in the unexamined, and more feminized, environments of live-in summer camps. It also re-confirms that, despite popular rhetoric in the West about equality and opportunity, everyone is not allowed equal opportunity to lead.
AckerJ (1990). Hierarchies, jobs, bodies: A theory of gendered organizations. Gender and Society4(2): 139–158.
4.
AdamsJ (2007). Stained glass makes the ceiling visible: Organisational opposition to women in congregational leadership. Gender and Society21(1): 80–105.
5.
AllenTD (2006). Rewarding good citizens: The relationship between citizenship behaviour, gender, and organisational rewards. Journal of Applied Psychology36(1): 120–143.
6.
AlvessonM (1992). Leadership as social integrative action. A study of a computer consultancy company. Organization Studies13(2): 185–209.
ArveyRRotundoMJohnsonWZhangZMcGueM (2006). The determinants of leadership role occupancy: Genetic and personality factors. Leadership Quarterly17(1): 1–20.
9.
AtwaterLBrettJWaldmanDDiMareLHaydenM (2004). Men’s and women’s perceptions of the gender typing of management subroles. Sex Roles50(3/4): 191–199.
10.
BabcockLLascheverS (2003). Women Don’t Ask: Negotiation and the Gender Divide. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University.
11.
BailynL(2002). Time in organisations: Constraints on, and possibilities for, gender equity in the workplace. In: BurkeRNelsonD (eds). Advancing Women’s Careers: Research and Practice. Malden, MA: Blackwell, pp. 262–272.
12.
BanajiMHardinCRothmanA (1993). Implicit stereotyping in person judgment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology65(2): 272–281.
13.
BaronJHannanMHsuGKocakO (2007). In the company of women: Gender inequality and the logic of beurocracy in start-up firms. Work and Occupations34(1): 35–66.
14.
BartunekJWalshKLaceyC (2000). Dynamics and dilemmas of women leading women. Organisation Science11(6): 589–610.
15.
BassB (1981). The Stogdill Handbook of Leadership: A Survey of Theory and Research. New York: Free Press.
16.
BassBStogdillR (1990). Bass and Stogdill's Handbook of Leadership: Theory, Research, and Managerial Applications. New York: Free Press.
17.
BellENkomoSM (2001). Our Separate Ways: Black and White Women and the Struggle for Professional Identity. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.
18.
BerdahlJAndersonC (2005). Men, women, and leadership centralization in groups over time. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice9(1): 45–57.
19.
BerdahlJMooreC (2006). Workplace harassment: Double jeopardy for minority women. Journal of Applied Psychology91(2): 426–436.
20.
BergB (2004). Qualitative Research Methods for the Social Sciences. Boston, MA: Pearson Education.
21.
BertozziE (2008). ‘You play like a girl!’: Cross-gender competition and the uneven playing field. Convergence14(4): 473–488.
22.
BiernatM (2003). Toward a broader view of social stereotyping. American Psychologist58(12): 1019–1027.
23.
Blair-LoyM (2003). Competing Devotions: Career and Family Among Women Executives. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
24.
Bobbitt-ZeherD (2011). Connecting gender stereotypes, insitutional policies, and gender composition of workplace. Gender and Society25(6): 764–768.
25.
BorgattaEBalesRCouchA (1954). Some findings relevant to the great man theory of leadership. American Sociological Review19(6): 755–759.
26.
BowenCSwimJJacobsR (2000). Evaluating gender biases on actual job performance of real people: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Social Psychology30(10): 2194–2215.
27.
BrodieJ (2008). ‘We are all equal now’: Contemporary gender politics in Canada. Feminist Theory9(2): 145–164.
28.
BrownS (1979). Male versus female leaders: A comparison of empirical studies. Sex Roles5(5): 595–611.
29.
BudigM (2002). Male advantage and the gender composition of jobs: Who rides the glass escalator?Social Problems49(2): 258–277.
30.
ButlerJ (1990). Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. New York: Routledge.
31.
ButlerJ (1997). Excitable Speech: A Politics of the Performative. New York: Routledge.
32.
CameronD (1998). Gender, language, and discourse: A review essay. Signs23(4): 945–973.
33.
CampbellA (2004). Female competition: Causes, constraints, content, and contexts. Journal of Sex Research41(1): 16–26.
34.
CarliL(2006). Gender issues in workplace groups: Effects of gender and communication style on social influence. In: BarrettMDavidsonM (eds). Gender and Communication at Work. Burlington, VT: Ashgate, pp. 69–83.
35.
CarterMColyerS (1999). Feminising the outdoors: Women and adventure recreation leadership. Annals of Leisure Research2: 73–86.
36.
CataniaJBinsonDCancholaJPollackLHauckWCoatesT (1996). Effects of interviewer gender, interviewer choice, and item wording on response questions concerning sexual behaviour. The Public Opinion Quarterly60(3): 345–375.
37.
CawthonD (1996). Leadership: The great man theory revisited. Business Horizons39(3): 1–4.
38.
CejkaMEaglyA (1999). Gender-stereotypic images of occupation correspond to the sex segregation of employment. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin25(4): 413–423.
39.
ChapmanJ (1975). Comparison of male and female leadership styles. Academy of Management Journal18(3): 645–650.
40.
ChatmanJBoisnierASpataroSAndersonCBerdahlJ (2008). Being distinctive versus being conspicuous: The effects of numeric status and sex-stereotyped tasks on individual performance in groups. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes107(2): 141–160.
41.
ChemersM (1997). An Integrative Theory of Leadership. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc.
42.
ClemmensenB (2002). An exploration of differences and perceptions of difference between male and female challenge course instructors. The Journal of Experiential Education25(1): 214–219.
43.
CockburnC (1991). In the Way of Women: Men’s Resistance to Sex Equality in Organizations. Ithaca, NY: ILR Press.
44.
ConnellR (1998). Masculinities and globalization. Men and Masculinities1(1): 3–23.
45.
CorrellS (2001). Gender and the career choice process: The role of biased self-assessments. American Journal of Psychology106(6): 1691–1730.
46.
CorrellSBenardSPaikI (2007). Getting a job: Is there a motherhood penalty?American Journal of Sociology112(5): 1297–1338.
47.
CrawfordM (1995). Talking Difference: On Gender and Language. London: SAGE Publications.
48.
DasguptaNAsgariS (2004). Seeing is believing: Exposure to counterstereotypic women leaders and its effect on the malleability of automatic gender stereotyping. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology40(5): 642–658.
49.
DavidsonHBurkeM (2000). Sex discrimination in simulated employment contexts: A meta-analytic investigation. Journal of Vocational Behavior56(2): 225–248.
50.
DindiaKCanaryDJ (2006). Sex Differences and Similarities in Communication. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
51.
DobbinsGPlatzS (1986). Sex differences in leadership: How real are they?Academy of Managment Review11(1): 118–127.
52.
DouglasSMichaelsM (2004). The Mommy Myth: The Idealization of Motherhood and how it Has Undermined Women. New York: Free Press.
53.
DuehrEBonoJ (2006). Men, women, and managers: Are stereotypes finally changing?Personnel Psychology59(4): 815–846.
54.
EaglyA (2005). Achieving relational authenticity in leadership: Does gender matter?Leadership Quarterly16(3): 459–474.
55.
EaglyACarliL (2007). Through the Labyrinth: The Truth about how Women Become Leaders. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Publishing Corp.
56.
EaglyADiekmanA (2006). Examining gender gaps in sociopolitical attitudes: It’s not Mars and Venus. Feminism and Psychology16(1): 26–34.
57.
EaglyAJohnsonB (1990). Gender and leadership style: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin108(2): 223–256.
58.
EaglyAKarauS (2002). Role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders. Psychological Review109(3): 573–598.
59.
EaglyAKoenigA(2008). On the risks of occupying incongruent roles. In: BorgidaEFiskeS (eds). Beyond Common Sense: Psychological Science in the Courtroom. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing, pp. 63–81.
60.
EaglyASteffenV (1986). Gender and aggressive behaviour: A meta-analytic review of the social psychological literature. Psychological Bulletin100(3): 309–330.
61.
EaglyAKarauSMakhijaniM (1995). Gender and the effectiveness of leaders: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin117(1): 125–145.
62.
EllemersDde GilderDHaslamSA (2004). Motivating individuals and groups at work: A social identity perspective on leadership and group performance. Academy of Management Review29(3): 459–478.
63.
ElliottJSmithR (2004). Race, gender, and workplace power. American Sociological Review69(3): 459–478.
64.
EnglandP (2005). Gender inequality in labor markets: The role of motherhood and segregation. Social Politics12(2): 264–288.
65.
FuegenKBiernatMHainesEDeauxK (2004). Mothers and fathers in the workplace: How gender and parental status influence judgments of job-related competence. Journal of Social Issues60(4): 737–754.
66.
GalS(1996). Language, gender, and power: An anthropological review. In: HallKBucholtzM (eds). Gender Articulated: Language and the Socially Constructed Self. New York: Routledge, pp. 169–182.
67.
GarveyDGassM (1999). Hiring preference trends in the outdoor adventure programming field. The Journal of Experiential Education22(1): 44–49.
68.
GoldbergP (1968). Are women prejudiced against women?Trans-Action5: 316–322.
GrintK (2005). Leadership: Limits and Possibilities. Management, work and organizations series. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
71.
HearnJ(1999). A crisis in masculinity, or new agendas for men? In: WalbyS (ed.) New Agendas for Women. Basingstoke: Macmillan Press, pp. 148–168.
72.
HearnJParkinP (1983). Gender and organizations: A selective review and a critique of a neglected area. Organization Studies4(3): 219–242.
73.
HeilmanM (2001). Description and prescription: How gender stereotypes prevent women’s ascent up the organisational ladder. Journal of Social Issues57(4): 657–674.
74.
HeilmanMOkimotoT (2007). Why are women penalized for success at male tasks? The implied communality deficit. Journal of Applied Psychology92(1): 81–92.
75.
HendersonKBialeschkiM (1984). The personal and professional spheres: Complement or conflict for women. Journal of Park and Recreation Administration2(4): 21–30.
76.
HendersonKWhitakerLBialeschkiMScanlinMThurberC (2007). Summer camp experiences: Parental perceptions of youth development outcomes. Journal of Family Issues28(8): 987–1007.
77.
HillM(2003). Where have all the sisters gone? In: RhodeD (ed.) The Difference ‘Difference’ Makes: Women and Leadership. Stanford, CA: Stanford Law and Politics, pp. 98–101.
78.
HollanderE(1961). Emergent leadership and social influence. In: PetrulloLBassB (eds). Leadership and Interpersonal Behaviour. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston Inc., pp. 30–51.
79.
HubbardR (1990). Rethinking women’s biology. The Politics of Women’s Biology. New York: Rutgers, pp. 119–129.
80.
Iszatt-WhiteM (2011). Methodological crises and contextual solutions: An ethnomethodologically-informed approach to understanding leadership. Leadership7(2): 121–137.
81.
JohnsonD (1990). Women in the outdoors. The Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Leadership7(3): 38–40.
82.
JordanD (1991). In the eye of the beholder: Perceptions of female and male outdoor leaders. Leisure Studies10(3): 235–245.
83.
KentRMossS (1994). Effects of gender and gender role on leader emergence. Academy of Management Journal37(5): 1335–1347.
84.
KimmelM(1994). Masculinity as homophobia: Fear, shame and silence in the construction of gender identity. In: BrodHKaufmanM (eds). Theorizing Masculinities. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, pp. 119–141.
85.
KimmelM (2008). The Gendered Society. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
86.
KruegerRCaseyM (2009). Focus Groups: A Practical Guide for Applied Research. Los Angeles: SAGE Publications.
87.
KushellENewtonR (1986). Gender, leadership style, and subordinate satisfaction: An experiment. Sex Roles14(3/4): 203–209.
88.
MartinBCashelCWagstaffMBreunigM (2006). Outdoor Leadership: Theory and Practice. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
89.
McElroyJ (1982). A typology of attribution leadership research. Academy of Management Review7(3): 413–417.
90.
MirandaWYerkesR (1987). Women outdoor leaders today. The Camping Magazine59(4): 16–28.
91.
MontellF (1999). Focus group interviews: A new feminist method. NWSA Journal11(1): 44–71.
92.
MurphyEEckstatAParkerT (1995). Sex and gender differences in leadership. The Journal of Leadership Studies2(1): 116–131.
93.
Neill J (1997) Gender: How does it effect the outdoor education experience? In: Catalysts for Change: 10th National Outdoor Education Conference Proceedings, January 20–24. Sydney, Australia: The Outdoor Professionals, 183–192.
94.
NewberyL (2003). Will any/body carry that canoe? A geography of the body, ability, and gender. Canadian Journal of Environmental Education8(1): 204–216.
95.
NorthhouseP (2006). Leadership: Theory and Practice. San Francisco, CA: SAGE Publications.
96.
OCA (Ontario Camps Association) (2009) OCA: What We Offer, Ontario Camps Association Official Website. Available at: www.ontariocamps.ca/about/what_we_offer.html (accessed 13 April 2010).
97.
RidgewayC (1991). The social construction of status value: Gender and other nominal characteristics. Social Forces70(2): 367–386.
98.
RidgewayC (2009). Framed before we know it: How gender shapes social relations. Gender and Society23(2): 145–160.
99.
RillingCJordanD (2007). Important co-leader skills and traits on extended outdoor trips as perceived by leaders. Leisure Studies26(2): 193–212.
100.
RodlerCKirchlerEHolzlE (2002). Gender stereotypes of leaders: An analysis of the contents of obituaries from 1974 to 1998. Sex Roles45(11/12): 827–843.
101.
SaundersNSharpB (2002). Outdoor leadership – The last male domain?European Journal of Physical Education7(2): 85–94.
102.
SharpB (2001). Take me to your (male) leader. Gender and Education13(1): 75–86.
103.
SharpeE (2005). ‘Going above and beyond’: The emotional labor of adventure guides. Journal of Leisure Research37(1): 29–50.
104.
SpenderD (1980). Man Made Language. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
105.
SpringhallJ(1991). Building character in the British boy: The attempt to extend British manliness to working-class adolescents, 1880–1914. In: ManganJWalvinJ (eds). Manliness and Morality: Middle-Class Masculinity in Britain and America, 1800–1940. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, pp. 52–74.
106.
van EngenMWillemsenT (2000). Gender and Leadership Styles: A Review of the Past Decade. Tilburg University, Le Tilburg: Work and Organisational Reseach Centre.
107.
WajcmanJ (1998). Managing Like a Man: Women and Men in Corporate Management. University Park: Penn State University Press.
108.
WarrenK (2006). Factors that influence women’s technical skill development in outdoor adventure. Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Learning6(2): 107–119.
109.
WilkinsonS (1998). Focus groups in feminist research: Power, interaction, and the co-construction of meaning. Women's Studies International Forum21(1): 111–125.
