Research exploring transformational and transactional leader behaviors has focused largely on bivarite relations among these behaviors and relevant criteria. This has limited the extent to which Bass's (1985) argument that optimally effective leaders engage in both types of behavior can be directly assessed. Pattern-oriented analyses were used here to discern which behavioral pattern was associated with the highest levels of subordinate satisfaction and commitment. In general, optimally effective leaders used a combination of transformational and contingent reward (e.g. exchange-based transactional leadership) behaviors, coupled with a low level of passive management-by-exception behavior (e.g. remaining uninvolved until problems emerge).
Allen, N.J., & Meyer, J.P. (1990) `The Measurement and Antecedents of Affective, Continuance, and Normative Commitment to the Organization', Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology63: 1-18.
2.
Avolio, B.J., & Bass, B.M. (1995) `Individual Consideration Viewed at Multiple Levels of Analysis: A Multi-level Framework for Examining the Diffusion of Transformational Leadership', The Leadership Quarterly6: 199-218.
3.
Avolio, B.J., Bass, B.M., & Jung, D.I. (1999) `Re-examining the Components of Transformational and Transactional Leadership Using the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire' , Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology72: 441-62.
4.
Bass, B.M. (1985) Leadership and Performance beyond Expectations . New York: Free Press.
5.
Bass, B.M. (1997) `Does the Transactional-Transformational Leadership Paradigm Transcend Organizational and National Boundaries?', American Psychologist52: 130-9.
6.
Bass, B.M. (1998) Transformational Leadership: Industrial, Military, and Educational Impact. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
7.
Bass, B.M., & Avolio, B.J. (1993) `Transformational Leadership: A Response to Critiques' , in M. M. Chemers & R. Ayman (eds) Leadership Theory and Research: Perspectives and Directions, pp. 49-80. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
8.
Bass, B.M., Avolio, B.J., Jung, D.I., & Berson, Y. (2003) `Predicting Unit Performance by Assessing Transformational and Transactional Leadership', Journal of Applied Psychology88: 207-18.
9.
Bycio, P., Hackett, R.D., & Allen, J.S. (1995) `Further Assessments of Bass's (1985) Conceptualization of Transactional and Transformational Leadership', Journal of Applied Psychology80: 468-78.
10.
Burns, J.M. (1978) Leadership. New York: Harper & Row.
11.
Cohen, J. (1988) Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences . Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum .
12.
Crampton, S.M., & Wagner, J.A., III. (1994) `Percept-percept Inflation in Microorganizational Research: An Investigation of Prevalence and Affect', Journal of Applied Psychology79: 67-76.
13.
Druskat, V.U. (1994) `Gender and Leadership Style: Transformational and Transactional Leadership in the Roman Catholic Church', The Leadership Quarterly5: 99-119.
14.
Eden, D., & Levitan, U. (1975) `Implicit Leadership Theory as a Determinant of the Factor Structure Underlying Supervisory Behavior Scales', Journal of Applied Psychology60: 736-41.
15.
Eagly, A.H., & Johannesen-Schmidt, M.C. (2001) `The Leadership Styles of Men and Women', Journal of Social Issues57: 781-97.
16.
Eagly, A.H., & Johnson, B.T. (1990) `Gender and Leadership Style: A Meta-analysis' , Psychological Bulletin108: 233-56.
17.
Foti, R.J., & Hauenstein, N.M.A. (2007) `Pattern and Variable Approaches in Leadership Emergence and Effectiveness', Journal of Applied Psychology92: 347-55.
18.
Hater, J.J., & Bass, B.M. (1988) `Superiors' Evaluations and Subordinates' Perceptions of Transformational and Transactional Leadership', Journal of Applied Psychology73: 695-702.
19.
House, R.J. (1977) `A 1976 Theory of Charismatic Leadership', in J. G. Hunt & L. L. Larson (eds) Leadership: The Cutting Edge, pp. 199-272. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press.
20.
Howell, J.M., & Avolio, B.J. (1993) `Transformational Leadership, Transactional Leadership, Locus of Control, and Support for Innovation: Key Predictors of Consolidated-business-unit performance', Journal of Applied Psychology78: 891-902.
21.
Howell, J.M., & Hall-Merenda, K.E. (1999) `The Ties That Bind: The Impact of Leader-member Exchange, Transformational and Transactional Leadership, and Distance on Predicting Follower Performance', Journal of Applied Psychology84: 680-94.
22.
Judge, T.A., & Piccolo, R.F. (2004) `Transformational and Transactional Leadership: A Meta-analytic Test of Their Relative Validity', Journal of Applied Psychology89: 755-68.
23.
Judge, T.A., Piccolo, R.F., & Ilies, R. (2004) `The Forgotten Ones? The Validity of Consideration and Initiating Structure in Leadership Research', Journal of Applied Psychology89: 36-51.
24.
Kane, T.D., & Tremble, T.R. (2000) `Transformational Leadership Effects at Different Levels of the Army', Military Psychology12: 137-60.
25.
Lord, R.G., De Vader, C.L., & Alliger, G.M. (1986) `A Meta-analysis of the Relation Between Personality Traits and Leadership Perceptions: An Application of Validity Generalization Procedures', Journal of Applied Psychology71: 402-10.
26.
MacCallum, R.C., Zhang, S., Preacher, K.J., & Rucker, D.D. (2002) `On the Practice of Dichotomization of Quantitative Variables', Psychological Methods7: 19-40.
27.
Magnusson, D. (1992) `Back to the Phenomena: Theory, Methods, and Statistics in Psychological Research', European Journal of Personality6: 1-14.
28.
Magnusson, D., & Torestad, B. (1993) `A Holistic View of Personality: A Model Revisited' , Annual Review of Psychology44: 427-52.
29.
Maslow, A.H. (1954) Motivation and Personality. New York: Harper.
30.
Moscovici, S. (1989) `Preconditions for Explanation in Social Psychology' , European Journal of Social Psychology19: 407-30.
31.
Nunnally, J.C. (1978) Psychometric Theory. New York : McGraw-Hill.
32.
Nystedt, L. (1997) `Who Should Rule? Does Personality Matter?', European Journal of Personality11: 1-14.
33.
Reitzle, M., & Vondracek, F.W. (2000) `Methodological Avenues for the Study of Career Pathways', Journal of Vocational Behavior57: 445-67.
34.
Ross, S.M., & Offermann, L.R. (1997) `Transformational Leaders: Measurement of Personality Attributes and Work Group Performance', Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin23: 1078-86.
35.
Silver, N.C., & Hittner, J.B. (1998) A Guidebook of Statistical Software for the Social and Behavioral Sciences. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
36.
Smith, J.A., & Foti, R.J. (1998) `A Pattern Approach to Leader Emergence', The Leadership Quarterly9: 147-60.
37.
Spector, P.E. (1987) `Method Variance as an Artifact in Self-reported Affect and Perceptions at Work: Myth or Significant Problem?', Journal of Applied Psychology72: 438-43.
38.
von Eye, A., Spiel, C., & Wood, P.K. (1996) `Configural Frequency Analysis in Applied Psychological Research', Applied Psychology: An International Review45: 301-327.
39.
Waldman, D.A., Bass, B.M., & Yammarino, F.J. (1990) `Adding to Contingent-reward Behavior: The Augmenting Effect of Charismatic Leadership', Group and Organization Management15: 381-94.
40.
Yammarino, F.J., & Dansereau, F. (2008) `Multi-level Nature of and Multi-level Approaches to Leadership', The Leadership Quarterly19: 135-41.
41.
Yammarino, F.J., Dionne, S.D., Chun, J.U., & Dansereau, F. (2005) `Leadership and Levels of Analysis: A State-of-the-science Review', The Leadership Quarterly16: 879-919.
42.
Yammarino, F.J., Spangler, W.D., & Bass, B.M. (1993) `Transformational Leadership and Performance: A Longitudinal Investigation', The Leadership Quarterly4: 81-102.
