This study examines whether goal orientation — which refers to whether individuals strive to learn skills, attract favourable evaluations, or minimize unfavourable judgments — influences whether transformational leadership improves employee performance, creativity and work attitudes. A sample of 263 employees completed a questionnaire in which they assessed their own goal orientation and commitment, as well as evaluated the leadership style of their supervisor. Moreover, these supervisors appraised the performance and creativity of their employees. The findings revealed that a learning orientation magnified the benefits of contingent reward — in which leaders provide clear incentives to motivate employees — on normative commitment. Furthermore, when employees endeavoured to attract favourable evaluations, intellectual stimulation was more likely to foster normative commitment. Finally, when employees endeavored to minimize unfavourable judgments, inspirational motivation diminished affective commitment to the organization. These findings suggest the goal orientation of employees should be optimized before plans to encourage transformational leadership are instituted.
Aiken, L.S., and West, S.G. (1991) Multiple Regression: Testing and Interpreting Interactions . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications Inc.
2.
Ames, C. (1984) `Competitive, Cooperative, and Individualistic Goal Structures: A Cognitive Motivational Analysis', in C. Ames (ed.) Research on Motivation in Education , Vol. 1, pp. 177—208. New York : Academic Press.
3.
Avolio, B.J., Waldman, D.A., and Einstein, W.O. (1988) `Transformational Leadership in a Management Game Simulation: Impacting the Bottom Line', Group and Organizational Studies13: 59—80.
4.
Barling, J., Slater, F., & Kelloway, E.K. (2000) `Transformational Leadership and Emotional Intelligence: An Exploratory Study', Leadership and Organization Development Journal21: 157—61.
5.
Barling, J., Weber, T., and Kelloway, E.K. (1996) `Effects of Transformational Leadership Training on Attitudinal and Financial Outcomes: A Field Experiment', Journal of Applied Psychology81: 827—32.
6.
Bass, B.M. (1985) Leadership and Performance Beyond Expectations . New York: Free Press.
7.
Bass, B.M. (1999) `Two Decades of Research and Development in Transformational Leadership', European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology8: 9—32.
8.
Bass, B.M., & Avolio, B.J. (1990) `Developing Transformational Leadership: 1992 and Beyond', Journal of European Industrial Training14: 21—7.
9.
Bass, B.M., & Avolio, B.J. (1994) Improving Organizational Effectiveness Through Transformational Leadership. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications Inc.
10.
Bass, B.M., & Avolio, B.J. (1997) Full Range Leadership Development: Manual for the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire. Palo Alto, CA: Mindgarden.
11.
Bass, B.M., & Avolio, B.J. (2000) Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire, Form 5X. Binghamton, NY: Center for Leadership Studies, State University of New York at Binghamton.
12.
Basu, R., & Green, S.G. (1997) `Leader-Member Exchange and Transformational Leadership: An Empirical Examination of Innovative Behaviours in Leader-Member Dyads', Journal of Applied Social Psychology27: 477—99.
13.
Baumann, N., & Kuhl, J. (2003) `Self-Infiltration: Confusing Assigned Tasks as Self-Selected in Memory', Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin29: 487—97.
14.
Baumann, N., & Kuhl, J. (2005) `How to Resist Temptation: The Effects of External Control Versus Autonomy Support on Self-Regulatory Dynamics', Journal of Personality73: 443—70.
15.
Bennis, W., & Nanus, B. (1985) Leaders: The Strategies for Taking Charge. New York: Harper and Row.
16.
Bono, J.E., & Judge, T.A. (2003) `Self-Concordance at Work: Toward Understanding the Motivational Effects of Transformational Leaders', Academy of Management Journal46: 554—71.
17.
Brett, J.F., & VandeWalle, D. (1999) `Goal Orientation and Goal Content as Predictors of Performance in a Training Program', Journal of Applied Psychology84: 863—73.
18.
Burns, J.M. (1978) Leadership. New York: Harper & Row.
19.
Butler, R. (1992) `What Young People Want to Know When: Effects of Mastery and Ability Goals on Interest in Different Kinds of Social Comparisons ', Journal of Personality and Social Psychology62: 924—43.
20.
Butler, R. (2000) `Making Judgments about Ability: The Role of Implicit Theories of Ability in Moderating Inferences from Temporal and Social Comparison Information', Journal of Personality and Social Psychology78: 965—78.
21.
Bycio, P., Hackett, R.D., & Allen, J.S. (1995) `Further Assessments of Bass's (1985) Conceptualization of Transactional and Transformational Leadership', Journal of Applied Psychology80: 468—78.
22.
Campion, M.A., Papper, E.M., & Medsker, G.J. (1996) `Relations Between Work Team Characteristics and Effectiveness: A Replication and Extension', Personnel Psychology49: 429—52.
23.
Carless, S.A. (1998) `Assessing the Discriminant Validity of Transformational Leader Behaviour as Measured by the MLQ', Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology71: 353—8.
24.
Carless, S.A., Mann, L., and Wearing, A.J. (1995) `An Empirical Test of the Transformational Leadership Model'. Paper Presented at the Inaugural Australian Industrial and Organizational Psychology Conference, Sydney , Australia. September.
25.
Coad, A.F., and Berry, A.J. (1998) `Transformational Leadership and Learning Orientation ', Leadership and Organization19: 164—72.
26.
Cohen, F., Solomon, S., Maxfield, M., Pyszczynski, T., & Greenberg, J. (2004) `Fatal Attraction: The Effects of Mortality Salience on Evaluations of Charismatic, Task-Oriented, and Relationship-Oriented Leaders ', Psychological Science15: 846—51.
27.
Collins, R.L. (1996) `For Better or for Worse: The Impact of Upward Social Comparison on Self-Evaluations', Psychological Bulletin119: 51—69.
28.
Colquitt, J.A., Conlon, D.E., Wesson, M.J., Porter, C.O.L.H., & Ng, K.Y. (2001) `Justice at the Millennium: A Meta-Analytic review of 25 Years of Organizational Justice Research', Journal of Applied Psychology86: 386—400
29.
Conger, J.A., & Kanungo, R.N. (1987) `Toward a Behavioural Theory of Charismatic Leadership in Organizational Settings', Academy of Management Review12: 637—47.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1975) Beyond Boredom and Anxiety. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
32.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1978) `Attention and the Holistic Approach to Behaviour ', in J. L. Singer (ed.) The Stream of Consciousness, pp. 335—58. New York: Plenum Press.
33.
Cury, F., Elliot, A., Sarrazin, P., Fonseca, D.D., & Rufo, M. (2002) `The Trichotomous Achievement Goal Model and Intrinsic Motivation: A Sequential Mediational Analysis', Journal of Experimental Social Psychology38: 473—81.
34.
Deci, E.L., & Ryan, R.M. (1985) Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Human Behaviour. New York: Plenum Press.
35.
Den Hartog, D.N. (1997). `Inspirational Leadership'. Unpublished PhD Thesis. University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
36.
Diener, C.I., and Dweck, C.S. (1978) `An Analysis of Learned Helplessness: Continuous Changes in Performance, Strategy, and Achievement Cognitions Following Failure ', Journal of Personality and Social Psychology36: 451—62.
37.
Diener, C.I., & Dweck, C.S. (1980) `An Analysis of Learned Helplessness: II. The Processing of Success', Journal of Personality and Social Psychology39: 940—52.
38.
Dubinsky, A.J., Yammarino, F.J., Jolson, M.A., & Spangler, W.D. (1995) `Transformational Leadership: An Initial Investigation in Sales Management', Journal of Personal Selling and Sales Management15: 17—31.
39.
Dumdum, U.R., Lowe, K.B., & Avolio, B.J. (2002) `A Meta-Analysis of the Transformational and Transactional Leadership Correlates of Effectiveness and Satisfaction: An Update and Extension ', in F. J. Yammarino (ed.) Transformational and Charismatic Leadership: The Road Ahead, pp. 35—66. Amsterdam: JAI Press.
40.
Dweck, C.S. (1986) `Motivational Processes Affecting Learning', American Psychologist41: 1040—8.
41.
Dweck, C.S., & Elliott, E.S. (1983) `Achievement Motivation', in E. M. Hetherington (ed.) Handbook of Child Psychology: Vol 4. Social and Personality Development, pp. 643—91. New York: John Wiley.
42.
Dweck, C.S., & Leggett, E.L. (1988) `A Social-Cognitive Approach to Motivation and Personality', Psychological Review95: 256—73.
43.
Dweck, C., Chui, C., & Hong, Y. (1995a) `Implicit Theories and Their Role in Judgments and Reactions: A World from Two Perspectives', Psychological Inquiry6: 267—85.
44.
Dweck, C., Chui, C., & Hong, Y. (1995b) `Implicit Theories: Elaboration and Extension of the Model', Psychological Inquiry6: 322—33.
45.
Ehrhart, M.G., and Klein, K.J. (2001) `Predicting Followers' Preferences for Charismatic Leadership: The Influence of Follower Values and Personality', Leadership Quarterly12: 153—79.
46.
El-Alayli, A. (2006) `Matching Achievement Contexts with Implicit Theories to Maximize Motivation After Failure: A Congruence Model', Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin32: 1690—702.
47.
Elliott, E.S., & Dweck, C.S. (1988) `Goals: An Approach to Motivation and Achievement ', Journal of Personality and Social Psychology54: 5—12.
48.
Farr, J.L., Hofmann, D.A., & Ringenbach, K.L. (1993) Goal Orientation and Action Control Theory: Implications for Industrial and Organizational Psychology ', International Review of Industrial and Organizational Psychology8: 193—232.
49.
Fisher, S.L., and Ford, J.K. (1998) `Differential Effects of Learning Effort and Goal Orientation on Two Learning Outcomes', Personnel Psychology51: 397—420.
50.
George, J.M., and Jones, G.R. (1997) `Experiencing Work: Values, Attitudes, and Moods ', Human Relations50: 393—416.
51.
George, J.M., & Zhou, J. (2001) `When Openness to Experience and Conscientiousness Are Related to Creative Behaviour: An Interactional Approach', Journal of Applied Psychology86: 513—24.
52.
Geyer, A.L.J., & Steyrer, J.M. (1998). `Transformational Leadership and Objective Performance in Banks', Applied Psychology: An International Review47: 397—420.
53.
Goschke, T., & Kuhl, J. (1993) `The Representation of Intentions: Persisting Activation in Memory', Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition19: 1211—26.
54.
Harackiewicz, J.M., & Elliott, A.J. (1993) `Achievement Goals and Intrinsic Motivation', Journal of Personality and Social Psychology65: 904—15.
55.
Hater, J.J., and Bass, B.M. (1988) `Superiors' Evaluations and Subordinates' Perceptions of Transformational and Transactional Leadership', Journal of Applied Psychology73: 695—702.
56.
Higgins, E.T. (1987) `Self-Discrepancy: A Theory Relating Self and Affect ', Psychological Review94: 319—40.
57.
Higgins, E.T. (1997) `Beyond Pleasure and Pain', American Psychologist52: 1280—300.
58.
Higgins, E.T. (1998) `Promotion and Prevention: Regulatory Focus as a Motivational Principle', in M. P. Zanna (ed.) Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, Vol. 30, pp. 1—46. New York: Academic Press.
59.
Higgins, E.T. (2001) `Promotion and Prevention Experiences: Relating to Nonemotional Motivation States', in J. P. Forgas (ed.) Handbook of Affect and Social Cognition , pp. 186—211. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
60.
House, R.J. (1977) `A 1976 Theory of Charismatic Leadership', in L. L. Larson (ed.) Leadership: The Cutting Edge, pp. 189—207. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press.
61.
Howell, J.M., & Avolio, B.J. (1993) `Transformational Leadership, Transactional Leadership, Locus of Control and Support for Innovation: Key Predictors of Consolidated Business Unit Performance', Journal of Applied Psychology78: 891—902.
62.
Hunt, J.G. (1999) `Transformational/Charismatic Leadership's Transformation of the Field: An Historical Essay', Leadership Quarterly10: 129—44.
63.
Izard, C.E. (1977) Human Emotions. New York: Plenum Press.
64.
Jagacinski, C.M. (1992) `The Effects of Task Involvement and Ego Involvement on Achievement-Related Cognitions and Behaviours', in J. L. Meece (ed.) Student Perceptions in the Classroom: Causes and Consequences, pp. 307—26. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
65.
Janssen, O., & Van Yperen, N.W. (2004) `Employees' Goal Orientations, the Quality of Leader-Member Exchange, and the Outcomes of Job Performance and Job Satisfaction', Academy of Management Journal47: 368—84.
66.
Jaussi, K.S., & Dionne, S.D. (2003) `Leading for Creativity: The Role of Unconventional Leader Behavior', Leadership Quarterly14: 475—98.
67.
Jung, D.I. (2001) `Transformational and Transactional Leadership and their Effects on Creativity in Groups', Creativity Research Journal13: 185—95
68.
Keller, R.T. (1992) `Transformational Leadership and the Performance of Research and Development Project Groups', Journal of Management18: 489—501.
69.
Keller, R.T., & Holland, W.E. (1982) `The Measurement of Performance Among Research and Development Professional Employees: A Longitudinal Analysis', IEEE Transactions on EngineeringManagementEM-29: 54—8.
70.
Kemmelmeier, M., & Oyserman, D. (2001) `The Ups and Downs of Thinking About a Successful Other: Self-Construals and the Consequences of Social Comparisons', European Journal of Social Psychology31: 311—20.
71.
Kernis, M.H. (2003) `Toward a Conceptualization of Optimal Self-Esteem ', Psychological Inquiry14: 1—26.
72.
Kouzes, J.M., & Posner, B.Z. (1987) The Leadership Challenge: How to Get Extraordinary Things Done in Organizations. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
73.
Kuhl, J. (2000) `A Functional-Design Approach to Motivation and Volition: The Dynamics of Personality Systems Interactions', in M. Boekaerts, P. R. Pintrich and M. Zeidner (eds) Self-Regulation: Directions and Challenges for Future Research, pp. 111—69. New York: Academic Press.
74.
LeBouf, R.A., & Estes, Z. (2004) `“Fortunately, I'm not Einstein”: Comparison Relevance as a Determinant of Behavioural Assimilation and Contrast', Social Cognition22: 607—36.
75.
Liberman, N., Idson, L.C., Camacho, C.J., & Higgins, E.T. (1999) Promotion and Prevention Choices Between Stability and Change', Journal of Personality and Social Psychology77: 1135—45.
76.
Lockwood, P., & Kunda, Z. (1997) ` Superstars and Me: Predicting the Impact of Role Models on the Self', Journal of Personality and Social Psychology7: 91—103.
77.
Martin, R., & Epitropaki, O. (2001) `Role of Organizational Identification on Implicit Leadership Theories (ILTs), Transformational Leadership and Work Attitudes', Group Processes and Intergroup Relations4: 247—62.
78.
McColl-Kennedy, J.R., & Anderson, R.D. (2002) `Impact of Leadership Style and Emotions on Subordinate Performance', The Leadership Quarterly13: 545—59.
79.
Meyer, J.P., Allen, N.J., & Smith, C.A. (1993) `Commitment to Organizations and Occupations: Extension and Test of a Three-Component Conceptualization', Journal of Applied Psychology78: 538—51.
80.
Meyer, J.P., Stanley, D.J., Herscovitch, L., & Topolnytsky, L. (2002) `Affective, Continuance, and Normative Commitment to the Organization: A Meta-Analysis of Antecedents, Correlates, and Consequences', Journal of Vocational Behaviour61: 20—52.
81.
Moss, S.A., McFarland, J., Ngu, S., & Kijowska, A. (2007) `Maintaining an Open Mind to Closed Individuals: The Effect of Leadership Style and Resource Availability on the Association between Openness to Experience and Organizational Commitment', Journal of Research in Personality41: 259—75.
82.
Nicholls, J.G. (1984) `Achievement Motivation: Conceptions of Ability, Subjective Experience, Task Choice, and Performance', Psychological Review91: 328—46.
83.
Oldham, G.R., & Cummings, A. (1996) `Employee Creativity: Personal and Contextual Factors at Work', Academy of Management Journal39: 607—34.
84.
Palmer, B., Walls, M., Burgess, Z., & Stough, C. (2001) `Emotional Intelligence and Effective Leadership ', Leadership and Organization Development Journal22: 5—10.
85.
Pelham, B.W., and Wachsmuth, J.O. (1995) `The Waxing and Waning of the Social Self: Assimilation and Contrast in Social Comparison', Journal of Personality and Social Psychology69: 825—38.
86.
Plaks, J.E., Stroessner, S.J., Dweck, C.S., & Sherman, J.W. (2001) Person Theories and Attention Allocation: Preferences for Stereotypic Versus Counterstereotypic Information', Journal of Personality and Social Psychology80: 876—93.
87.
Podsakoff, P.M., MacKenzie, S.B., & Bommer, W.H. (1996) Transformational Leader Behaviours and Substitutes for Leadership as Determinants of Employee Satisfaction, Commitment, Trust, and Organizational Citizenship Behaviours', Journal of Management22: 259—98.
88.
Porter, L.W., & Bigley, G.A. (2001) `Motivation and Transformational Leadership: Some Organizational Context Issues', in M. Erez and U. Kleinbeck (eds) Work Motivation in the Context of a Globalizing Economy, pp. 279—91. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers .
89.
Pretty, G., and Seligman, M. (1983) `Affect and the Overjustification Effect', Journal of Personality and Social Psychology46: 1241—53.
90.
Scott, S.G., & Bruce, R.A. (1994) `Determinants of Innovative Behaviour: A Path Model of Individual Innovation in the Workplace', Academy of Management Journal37: 580—607.
91.
Seltzer, J., & Bass, B.M. (1987) Transformational Leadership: Beyond Initiation and Consideration. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Psychological Association, New York, August.
92.
Seltzer, J., Numeroff, M., & Bass, B.M. (1989) `Transformational Leadership: Is it a Source of More Burnout and Stress?', Journal of Health and Human Research Fall:175—85.
93.
Shamir, B., House, R.J., & Arthur, M.B. (1993) `The Motivational Effects of Charismatic Leadership: A Self-Concept Theory', Organization Science4: 577—94.
94.
Sheldon, K.M., & Elliott, A.J. (1999) `Goal Striving, Need Satisfaction and Longitudinal Well-Being: The Self-Concordance Model', Journal of Personality and Social Psychology76: 482—97.
95.
Shin, S.J., & Zhou, J. (2003) `Transformational Leadership, Conservation, and Creativity: Evidence from Korea', Academy of Management Journal46: 703—14.
96.
Singer, M.S. (1985) Transformational Versus Transactional Leadership: A Study of New Zealand Company Managers', Psychological Reports57: 143—6.
97.
Skitka, L., & Crosby, F. (2003) `Trends in the Social Psychological Study of Justice ', Personality and Social Review7: 282—5
98.
Sosik, J.J. (1997) `Effects of Transformational Leadership and Anonymity on Idea Generation in Computer-Mediated Groups', Group and Organization Management22: 460—87.
99.
Sosik, J.J., & Megerian, L.E. (1999) `Understanding Leader Emotional Intelligence and Performance: The Role of Self—Other Agreement on Transformational Leadership Perceptions', Group and Organization Management24: 367—90.
100.
Sosik, J.J., Kahai, S.S., & Avolio, B.J. (1998) `Transformational Leadership and Dimensions of Creativity: Motivating Idea Generation in Computer-Mediated Groups', Creativity Research Journal11: 111—21.
101.
Sparks, J.R., & Schenk, J.A. (2001) `Explaining the Effects of Transformational Leadership: An Investigation of the Effects of Higher-Order Motives in Multilevel Marketing Organizations', Journal of Organizational Behaviour22: 849—69.
102.
Stanovich, K.E., & West, R.F. (1997) `Reasoning Independently of Prior Belief and Individual Differences in Actively Open-Minded Thinking', Journal of Educational Psychology89: 342—57.
103.
Staw, B.M., Sutton, R.I., & Pelled, L. (1994) `Employee Positive Emotion and Favourable Outcomes at the Workplace', Organization Science5: 51—71.
104.
Stevens, C., & Gist, M. (1997) `Effects of Self-Efficacy and Goal Orientation on Negotiation Skill Maintenance: What are the Mechanisms?', Personnel Psychology50: 955—78.
105.
Sujan, H., Weitz, B.A., & Kumar, N. (1994) `Learning Orientation, Working Smart, and Effective Selling', Journal of Marketing58: 39—52.
106.
Tabachnick, B.G., & Fidell, L.S. (2001) Using Multivariate Statistics (4th ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
107.
Tejeda, M.J., Scandura, T.A., & Rajnandini, P. (2001) `The MLQ Revisited: Psychometric Properties and Recommendations', The Leadership Quarterly12: 31—52.
108.
Tepper, B.J., & Percy, P.M. (1994) `Structural Validity of the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire', Educational and Psychological Measurement54: 734—44.
109.
Tesser, A. (1988) `Toward a Self-Evaluation Maintenance Model of Social Behaviour', in L. Berkowitz (ed.) Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, pp. 181—227. New York: Academic Press.
110.
Tierney, P., Farmer, S.M., & Graen, G.B. (1999) `An Examination of Leadership and Employee Creativity: The Relevance of Traits and Relationships', Personnel Psychology52: 591—620.
111.
Tucker, M.L., Bass, B.M., & Daniel, J.L.G. (1992) `Transformational Leadership's Impact on Higher Education Satisfaction, Effectiveness, and Extra Effort'. Paper presented at the Center of Creative Leadership's Second Annual Conference on Leadership, Colorado Springs, CO, July.
112.
Van den Bos, K., Vermunt, R., & Wilke, H. (1997) `Procedural and Distributive Justice: What is Fair Depends on What Comes First Than on What Comes Next', Journal of Personality and Social Psychology72: 95—104.
113.
Van Yperen, N.W., & Janssen, O. (2002) `Fatigued and Dissatisfied or Fatigued but Satisfied? Goal Orientations and Responses to High Job Demands', Academy of Management Journal45: 1161—71.
114.
VandeWalle, D. (1997) `Development and Validation of a Work Domain Goal Orientation Instrument', Educational and Psychological Measurement57: 995—1015.
115.
VandeWalle, D. (2001) `Goal Orientation: Why Wanting to Look Successful Doesn't Always Lead to Success', Organizational Dynamics30: 162—71.
116.
VandeWalle, D., Brown, S., Cron, W., & Slocum, J. (1999) `The Influence of Goal Orientation and Self-Regulation Tactics on Sales Performance: A Longitudinal Field Test', Journal of Applied Psychology84: 249—59.
117.
Waldman, D.A., Bass, B.M., & Einstein, W.O. (1987)' Leadership and Outcomes of Performance Appraisal Processes', Journal of Occupational Psychology60: 177—86.
118.
Wang, J., & Lee, A.Y. (2006) `The Role of Regulatory Focus in Preference Construction ', Journal of Marketing Research43: 28—38.
119.
Weiss, H.M., & Cropanzano, R. (1996) `Affective Events Theory: A Theoretical Discussion of the Structure, Causes and Consequences of Affective Experiences at Work', in R. I. Sutton and B. M. Staw (eds) Research in Organizational Behaviour, Vol. 18, pp. 1—74. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
120.
Yammarino, F.J., & Bass, B.M. (1990) `Long-Term Forecasting of Transformational Leadership and its Effects Among Naval Officers: Some Preliminary Findings', in K. E. Clark and M. B. Clark (eds) Measures of Leadership, pp. 151—70. West Orange, NJ: Leadership Library of America.
121.
Yammarino, F.J., Spangler, W.D., & Bass, B.M. (1993) `Transformational Leadership and Performance: A Longitudinal Investigation', Leadership Quarterly4: 81—102.
122.
Young, M.R. (2005) The Motivational Effects of the Classroom Environment in Facilitating Self-Regulated Learning', Journal of Marketing Education27: 25—40.
123.
Yukl, G. (1999) `An Evaluation of Conceptual Weaknesses in Transformational and Charismatic Leadership Theories', Leadership Quarterly10: 285—305.
124.
Yukl, G. (2002) Leadership in Organizations (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
