Abstract
This conceptual paper applies the MASNI (GASCI) coaching model to mentoring in Southeast Asian contexts. We map its five stages—Matlamat, Alternatif, Strategi, Natijah, and Implementasi—onto mentoring processes, compare MASNI with Western frameworks (GROW, CLEAR, OSCAR), and argue that its explicit ethical-reflection step (Natijah) enhances cultural congruence. Using a narrative review and comparative mapping, we derive propositions and practical guidance for program design, mentor development, and evaluation. The paper positions MASNI as a structured, culturally aligned scaffold for mentoring and identifies a research agenda to test outcomes and mechanisms.
Introduction
Many people regard mentorship as a positive means for personal development, developing career routes, and supporting the growth of organizations. Even though in some situations, there is no proper mentoring process, a lot of organizations have a structured approach to develop talents via mentoring. In diverse sectors of learning and employment, the fundamental nature of mentoring reaches beyond just developing skills, encompassing dimensions like emotional guidance, showcasing actions, and directing an individual's professional path.
While mentoring and coaching overlap in various ways, coaching has been classically defined as a goal-directed and performance-improving process predominantly used in organizational scenarios (Grant, 2014). In recent decades, academic inquiry has increasingly explored the dynamic interrelationship between mentoring and coaching, emphasizing that hybrid methodologies, those that merge structured goal-setting with relational support, can yield superior developmental outcomes (Clutterbuck, 2014; Passmore & Fillery-Travis, 2011).
Many well-known models and frameworks, such as GROW (Whitmore, 2009), CLEAR (Hawkins, 2012), and OSCAR (Gilbert & Whittleworth, 2009), have been extensively utilized across various industries worldwide especially GROW model that has been regarded as the model by coaching practitioners. It is important to note that the majority of these models were designed within Western sociocultural paradigms. The application in culturally diverse or non-Western domains could be hampered unless they are tailored to match indigenous values, styles of interaction, and relational customs (Rock & Page, 2009). This variation in cultural outlooks emphasizes the need for systems that are solidly based in regional perspectives, all the while preserving rigorous methodologies.
The MASNI (GASCI) model, developed by Masni Mustafa (2022), is a coaching framework conceptualized in Malaysia, reflecting Southeast Asian cultural orientations such as relational harmony, collective decision-making, and emphasis on consequences for the wider community. This coaching model comprises of five stages, that is, Matlamat (Goal), Alternatif (Alternatives), Situasi & Strategi (Situation and Strategy), Natijah (Consequences), and Implementasi (Implementation). As per most coaching model it offers a structured approach to developmental conversations. While it was originally developed for coaching purposes, its structured progression and emphasis is applicable to be adapted into mentoring contexts.
This paper presents a conceptual application of the MASNI (GASCI) model to mentoring relationships. The author realized this model is applicable in mentoring process based upon her sessions that she has with many clients. It intends to explore how each stage of the model aligns with mentoring processes; and to evaluate its potential as a culturally responsive framework for mentoring practice especially in organizations. Therefore, it is hoped that this paper contributes to the literature on mentoring methodology by bridging the gap between culturally specific coaching models and mentoring theory to specifically developed the mentee in a way that is structured and culturally aligned.
Literature Review
Methodology (Conceptual Approach)
This conceptual study synthesis academic and practitioner sources to assess the cultural fit of the MASNI (GASCI) model for mentoring. We use a narrative review and comparative framework mapping (MASNI against GROW, CLEAR and OSCAR), interpreting findings through mentoring theory (e.g., Kram's career and psychosocial functions). The intent is to generate theoretically grounded propositions and practical guidance rather than empirical claims.
Search strategy and selection: The narrative review concentrated on peer-reviewed sources and scholarly monographs commonly cited in coaching and mentoring scholarship. Selection emphasized conceptual clarity and influence on practice (e.g., GROW, CLEAR, OSCAR; Kram's mentoring functions). Sources were screened for relevance to mentoring processes, cultural adaptation, and ethical reasoning. As this is a conceptual paper, the aim for a theoretical integration between the model and the mentoring process.
Analytic Procedure
We mapped MASNI's five stages against key mentoring functions, career development and psychosocial support then compared the resulting structure with Western-origin coaching models. The analysis focused on process alignment (goal-setting, exploration, situational diagnosis, action), relational depth (trust, power distance, deference), and normative considerations (explicit ethical reflection). This yielded a set of propositions intended to guide empirical testing.
Quality Considerations
To avoid overgeneralizing “culture,” we framed MASNI not as a fixed cultural template but as a context-attentive scaffold. The lens adopted is pragmatic and evidence-informed; Western models are treated as valuable but potentially culturally thin when moved across high-context, cultural settings. We also distinguish mentoring's long-duration relational work from coaching's shorter, performance-focused interventions to avoid construct drift.
Axiological Stance and Researcher Positioning
The analysis assumes that mentoring is both developmental and ethical. MASNI's Natijah step is interpreted as an explicit moral checkpoint that can create reflection, sense of caring and respect; and consequences of individual's actions. We recognize that not all mentoring dyads will prioritize this stance; hence, recommendations are offered as adaptable design principles rather than prescriptions.
Mentoring and Coaching: Conceptual Distinctions and Convergences
Mentoring and coaching, while often blended in practice, are distinct in their primary objectives and relational dynamics, even though most organizational leaders are not sure how they are distinctly different in concept and implementation. Mentoring is usually long-term, developmental, and relationship-oriented, with an emphasis on career and personal growth (Eby et al., 2013). Coaching inclines to be a shorter-duration, structured, and performance-focused, aiming to achieve specific goals within a defined timeframe (Grant, 2014). However, contemporary scholars recognizes the increasing convergence between the two, particularly in leadership development and educational contexts (Clutterbuck & Lane, 2004; Garvey et al., 2017). Although many people tend to use the terms coaching and mentoring interchangeably, it is good to understand that these two approaches can be used to complement each other.
Existing Models in Coaching and Mentoring
The GROW model, designed and developed by Whitmore (2009), has garnered extensive recognition as a coaching framework and is employed by numerous practitioners; its sequential components are Goal, Reality, Options, and Will, provide clear trajectory toward actionable outcomes. In the same manner, Hawkins’ CLEAR framework includes Contracting, Listening, Exploring, Action, and Review, combining relational depth alongside goal clarity (Hawkins, 2012). These systems are validated as efficient in creating developmental exchanges, but they arise from Western educational notions that highlight individual freedom, instant feedback, and direct approaches to problem-solving.
In the context of scholarly debates on mentoring, Kram's (1985) model highlights two primary purposes: those that involve career enhancement and those that offer psychosocial backing. These models categorize assorted tiers, particularly start, progress, departure, and transformation. Following theoretical models, including the developmental network angle (Higgins & Kram, 2001), extend the definition of mentoring to cover multiple relational dynamics in different environments. In spite of their extensive scope, these frameworks commonly miss the importance of cultural adaptation needed for fruitful mentoring interactions. The discourse predominantly revolves around directives and the exchange of experiential knowledge.
Cultural Adaptation of Developmental Models
Cross-cultural coaching scholarship has elucidated that frameworks must exhibit sensitivity to local conventions regarding hierarchical structures, indirect modes of communication, and collective accountability to achieve efficacy beyond their original cultural contexts (Hofstede, 2001; Rock & Page, 2009). In the Southeast Asian sphere, nurturing ties, the concept of shared respect, and a keen sensitivity to the effects on the community are often regarded as equally or more significant than personal triumphs. Consequently, homegrown frameworks such as MASNI (Mustafa, 2022) are pivotal in ensuring that developmental methodologies align with the culturally embedded experiences of the participants.
The MASNI (GASCI) Model
The MASNI model's five stages provide a sequential yet reflective structure:
Application of the MASNI (GASCI) Model to Mentoring Relationships
The methodology in this model reflects the cognitive, emotional, and behavioral facets of successful mentoring. Through the thorough discussion of goal definition, reflective evaluation of consequences, and culturally contextualized strategic planning, MASNI presents a hybrid framework that can assist both mentor and mentee to have structured and meaningful conversations that have the potential to mitigate the shortcomings with imported mentoring patterns mostly in Southeast Asian contexts.
Matlamat (Goal)
In mentoring theory, goal-setting is often implicit and emerges from mutual understanding over time (Clutterbuck, 2014), they are mostly derived through casual conversation rather than structured ones as there is no model to drive mentoring conversations. The Matlamat (goal) stage formalizes this process by explicitly defining objectives at the outset, aligning them with both the mentee's career development needs and psychosocial aspirations. This focus discussion on goal setting matches the beginning stage in Kram's model, where expectations can be clarified, but adds a culturally respectful dialog that acknowledges hierarchical sensitivities that is common in Southeast Asian contexts (Hofstede, 2001).
Mentoring function: Career development (clarifying career paths, setting learning plans) and psychosocial support (defining mentee's aspirations).
Alternatif (Alternatives)
This stage highlights the analytical methods that underpin mentoring, as it reflects upon various vocational paths, educational prospects, and growth methodologies (Eby et al., 2013). In the context of MASNI, the focus on this stage is to brainstorm options available to achieve the goal. This is a stage where active engagement is promoted while concurrently upholding the mentor's advisory position. The mentor may advise but must strive to remove his authoritative demure during the discussion. This is very important as the mentee may in certain cultures unreasonably yield to authoritative figures.
Mentoring function: Expanding mentee perspectives to explore opportunities and problem-solving approaches.
Situasi & Strategi (Situation and Strategy)
Mentoring involves helping mentees evaluate and review their current competencies, contextual constraints, and resources available for growth (Ragins & Kram, 2007). This MASNI stage formalizes such assessment by pairing situational analysis with formulation of strategies. In mentoring relationships, this can involve jointly diagnosing barriers such as organizational politics, skills gaps, or work–life balance and identifying strategies that fit both the mentee's personal style and cultural environment. The mentor will know what strategies are suitable for the mentee where culture and organizational politics is concerned.
Mentoring function: Career development (strategic planning) and psychosocial support (helping mentees navigate contextual challenges).
Natijah (Consequences)
A defining feature of MASNI, this stage invites deliberate reflection on the short- and long-term effects of proposed actions, not only for the mentee but also for their team, organization, and broader community. While mentoring research rarely makes such wide-ranging consequence mapping explicit, it aligns with the reflective learning principles of transformational mentoring (Garvey et al., 2017). For mentees, this stage reinforces the values of interdependence and social responsibility, thereby strengthening the ethical dimension of the mentoring process.
Mentoring function: Ethical reflection, fostering social and organizational awareness, reinforcing culturally aligned decision-making.
Critical Comparative Analysis
MASNI in Relation to Established Coaching Models
The relevance of the MASNI (GASCI) model to mentoring is best understood by comparing it with widely used coaching frameworks such as GROW (Whitmore, 2009), CLEAR (Hawkins, 2012), and OSCAR (Gilbert & Whittleworth, 2009). Although these models were not originally designed for mentoring, their structured, goal-oriented nature has made them applicable in mentoring contexts (Clutterbuck, 2014; Garvey et al., 2017). A careful comparison highlights both their shared foundations and MASNI's distinctive strengths, particularly its emphasis on culturally attuned, relationship-centered guidance.
Structural Parallels and Differences
The GROW, CLEAR, and OSCAR approaches shows an organized pathway that shifts from defining ambitions to planning career path, handle issues or executing job functions. Similarly, MASNI adheres to a sequential model, comprising Matlamat, Alternatif, Situasi & Strategi, Natijah, and Implementasi, yet incorporates a reflective “consequences” phase (Natijah) that is typically absent in most models originating from Western contexts. This segment effectively advocates for moral consideration and the foresight of extensive social impacts, thereby echoing the collectivist values widespread in Southeast Asian communities (Hofstede, 2001).
MASNI's “Situasi & Strategi” addresses that gap by coupling situational analysis with co-created strategic planning. In the same conversation, mentor and mentee assess competencies, stakeholders, power dynamics, and cultural norms, then translate these insights into specific, culturally congruent actions—identifying allies, sequencing steps, crafting respectful communication, and building accountability. This integration ensures the mentee does not merely recognize issues but departs with feasible, context-appropriate strategies that honor relational harmony and community impact.
Cultural Adaptability
Western-developed models often assume a high degree of individual autonomy and comfort with direct challenge both of which may not align with mentees’ expectations in hierarchical or relationship-focused cultures (Rock & Page, 2009). CLEAR's “Exploring” and OSCAR's “Consequences” elements partially address reflective thinking, but they are typically framed in individualistic terms. MASNI's Natijah stage, in contrast, embeds reflection in a community-oriented framework, asking mentees to consider organizational, familial, and societal consequences of their actions. This embedded concern makes MASNI inherently more culturally congruent for mentoring in Southeast Asian, Middle Eastern, and similar contexts.
Relational Depth
The distinction of mentoring from coaching lies in its dedicated approach toward the enhancement of sustainable interpersonal ties (Kram, 1985). Models such as GROW and OSCAR can be customized to enhance connections, they essentially carry a transactional quality. MASNI, through the incorporation of respectful dialog in the goal-setting process (Matlamat) and the collaborative generation of options (Alternatif), intentionally cultivates relational trust as a critical element of the methodology. This characteristic exerts notable influence in constructing mentoring affiliations, where trust is imperative for honesty, vulnerability, and reliable direction (Ragins & Kram, 2007).
Flexibility in Application
Although developed for coaching, MASNI's emphasis on relational and contextual fit makes it inherently suitable for mentoring. In practice, mentors can extend the timeline of each MASNI stage to match the evolving nature of the mentoring relationship, something less explicitly supported in GROW or OSCAR, which are often applied within fixed-session structures.
This comparative analysis positions MASNI not as a replacement for existing models but as a culturally grounded alternative particularly suited to mentoring in high-context cultures. Its integration of goal clarity, strategic action, and ethical reflection offers both functional and cultural advantages over imported models.
Extended Comparative Insights
Process Clarity
GROW and OSCAR excel at rapid contracting and action planning. In mentoring, where disclosure and identity work often take center stage, MASNI's deliberate co-creation of goals (Matlamat) and options (Alternatif) can build psychological safety without losing direction. Thus, the cooperation between the mentor and the mentee becomes more professional and beneficial.
Hierarchical Sensitivity
In high power-distance contexts, mentees may “over-comply” with mentor direction. MASNI mitigates this through Alternatif (structured divergence) and Natijah (explicit reflection on who is affected, and how). This reduces the risk of deference becoming dependency while honoring respect norms. By making the mentor aware of the brainstorming process for solution rather than imparting his experience and knowledge.
From situational diagnosis to culturally congruent strategy: Whereas GROW's “Reality” tends to separate assessment from action, MASNI's “Situasi & Strategi” integrates both, prompting mentors and mentees to match tactics to cultural expectations around face-saving, conflict avoidance, and consensus-building.
Ethical Reflection as Capability Building
Natijah extends typical “pros and cons” analyses by asking mentees to articulate community, organizational and family impacts. Over time, this can cultivate ethical sensitivity as a mentoring outcome in its own right, not merely a by-product of decision or suggestion-imposed conversation and decision making.
Methodological Implications and Practical Recommendations
Methodological Implications
Positioning the MASNI (GASCI) model within mentoring research invites the development of culturally grounded measures and designs that capture constructs often overlooked in Western frameworks. Researchers can operationalize key MASNI elements such as ethical reflection (Natijah), community impact, relational harmony, and collective decision-making through new scales, behavioral indicators, and qualitative coding schemes. Stage-based, longitudinal designs can trace mentee–mentor trajectories across Matlamat to Implementasi, using growth-curve modeling, diary methods, and process tracing to examine how shifts in goals, options, strategies, and ethical reasoning unfold over time. Psychometric work should test measurement invariance across cultural groups, ensuring that instruments meaningfully capture collectivist ethics and relational trust in Southeast Asian settings and beyond.
Methodologically, MASNI supports comparative and mixed-methods research that links individual change to social consequences. Cross-cultural quasi-experiments can contrast MASNI with GROW/CLEAR/OSCAR on outcomes like career advancement, psychosocial well-being, ethical sensitivity, and community benefit, while realist evaluation can surface context–mechanism–outcome patterns unique to high-context cultures. Multilevel models and social network analysis can assess how mentoring effects diffuse from dyads to teams and communities, reflecting MASNI's communal orientation. Participatory and indigenous methodologies can enhance cultural validity, and fidelity tools aligned to each MASNI stage can monitor implementation quality. Together, these approaches generate testable propositions about how culturally aligned mentoring mechanisms produce durable, ethically informed development.
Operationalization of Culturally Sensitive Mentoring Constructs
A significant number of mentoring research instruments such as the Mentoring Functions Questionnaire (MFQ; Noe, 1988) and the Mentoring Role Instrument (MRI; Ragins & McFarlin, 1990) were developed within Western paradigms and may not fully capture culturally specific dimensions such as awareness on actions and decision-making sensitivity either impacting peers, families and organizations. The Natijah stage provides a quantifiable construct for evaluating mentees’ ethical reflection and perceived social responsibility, thereby indicating the need for the adaptation or development of novel measurement tools.
Integration into Longitudinal Mentoring Studies
Coaching models frequently presuppose brief temporal frameworks and methodical, session-oriented interventions. On the other hand, mentoring characteristically evolves over extended periods, spanning months or even years. The implementation of the MASNI framework within mentoring contexts necessitates the adoption of longitudinal research methodologies that effectively capture developmental transformations throughout various cycles of goal establishment, strategic planning, and reflective analysis of consequences. This requirement carries significant implications for research design, which includes the imperative for repeated measures in data collection, as well as qualitative follow-up interviews aimed at elucidating the evolving relational and ethical dynamics inherent in the mentoring process.
Comparative Cultural Analysis
MASNI offers a solid framework for cross-cultural inquiry, enabling systematic examination of differences in mentoring practices across collectivist and individualist contexts. For example, researchers can compare how often and how deeply ethical reflection occurs in the Natijah phase among Southeast Asian versus Western mentoring pairs. This approach supports the advancement of comparative mentoring theory across cultures.
Mixed-Methods Approaches
The intricate nature of MASNI's relational and reflective dimensions is particularly conducive to the application of mixed-methods research methodologies. Quantitative surveys may be employed to assess goal attainment, perceived effectiveness of mentoring, and overall mentee satisfaction, whereas qualitative interviews can provide insights into the complex cultural and ethical reasoning processes activated during the Natijah stage.
Practical Recommendations
Mentor Training and Development
Organizations running mentoring programs should embed the MASNI model into mentor training before implementing the mentoring initiatives. Prioritize the Alternatif stage to cultivate mentee activity and the Natijah stage to integrate ethical reflection into decisions. Use case studies and role-play to practice culturally attuned goal-setting and consequence appraisal.
Program Design and Structure
Mentoring program coordinators should consider aligning program milestones with MASNI stages. For instance:
Quarter 1: Matlamat and Alternatif (goal-setting and exploration) Quarter 2: Situasi & Strategi (situational assessment and strategic planning) Quarter 3: Natijah (consequence analysis) Quarter 4: Implementasi (execution and review)
This staged approach ensures balanced attention to both action and reflection.
Evaluation and Feedback Mechanisms
The MASNI model's distinct stages enable program evaluation at multiple points. Feedback tools can be customized to assess stage-specific competencies or insights—for example, ethical judgment after Natijah or problem-solving agility after Alternatif.
Cultural Adaptation in International Programs
In multinational mentoring programs, the MASNI (GASCI) model offers a stable core that can be tailored to different settings. The stages stay the same, but visuals, analogies, and practical examples can be localized to match regional cultural values, language nuances, and customary decision-making practices.
In conclusion, integrating the MASNI framework into mentoring research and practice can bridge the long-standing gap between apparently neutral models and the sociocultural realities of mentoring. It enables rigorous, reliable empirical study alongside practical, ethically attuned application, positioning it as a compelling candidate for academic recognition and institutional adoption.
Testable Propositions
P1. Mentoring dyads using MASNI will report higher perceived cultural congruence than dyads using GROW/CLEAR/OSCAR alone, controlling for relationship length.
P2. Inclusion of Natijah will be positively associated with mentees’ reported ethical sensitivity and stakeholder awareness.
P3. Alternatif will be positively associated with mentee agency (voice and choice) in high power-distance contexts.
P4. Situasi & Strategi will predict implementation follow-through more strongly than a separate “reality-then-action” sequence.
P5. Programs aligning quarterly milestones to MASNI stages will show higher completion of developmental goals than nonaligned programs.
P6. The positive effects of MASNI will be moderated by mentor skill in facilitative questioning; directive styles may attenuate the benefits of Alternatif and Natijah.
P7. In cross-cultural dyads, MASNI will reduce reports of mis-attuned feedback compared with nonstructured approaches.
Limitations and Future Research
Conceptual Scope
This paper develops a theoretically informed framework without presenting empirical data. Findings should therefore be treated as propositions requiring validation through mixed-methods studies.
Cultural Generalizability
MASNI is grounded in Southeast Asian logics; its transferability to other communities or hybrid cultures warrants careful adaptation and local stakeholder input. Risk of essentialism “Culture” is dynamic and internally diverse. We recommend practitioner reflection logs and member-checking in qualitative phases to guard against stereotyping.
Measurement
Existing instruments (e.g., MFQ; MRI) may not capture Natijah-related constructs. Extending scales to include ethical-reflection and community-impact items is very much proposed.
Conclusion
Adapting MASNI (GASCI) to mentoring focuses on a culturally attentive pathway that integrates goal clarity, option generation, situational strategy, ethical reflection, and implementation. For contexts where relational harmony and communal impact matter, MASNI provides a pragmatic bridge between global frameworks and local practice. The propositions and practical steps outlined here offer a program-ready template and a research agenda to test, refine, and scale culturally aligned mentoring.
MASNI Versus Established Models in Mentoring Contexts.
Footnotes
Funding
The author received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.