Current treatment goals for hypertension include the prevention of end-organ injuries. Hypertension is certainly among the major contributors to atherogenesis, and many antihypertensive drugs seem to have wall-protecting properties. It is critical to identify, test, and implement non-invasive methods for the screening of the population in order to detect early wall abnormalities and to monitor the long-term effects of different antihypertensive treatments. Among these methods, B-mode ultrasound examination of carotid arteries has shown great potential in evaluating treatments that may prevent hypertension-related wall injuries.
SolbergLAStrongJP: Risk factors and atherosclerotic lesions: A review of autopsy studies. Arteriosclerosis1983, 3: 187–198. This seminal review assesses the pathological evidence supporting the relationship between cardiovascular risk factors and the prevalence of atherosclerosis.
2.
North American Symptomatic Carotid Endarterectomy Trial Collaborators: Beneficial effect of carotid endarterectomy in symptomatic patients with high-grade carotid stenosis. N Engl J Med1991, 325: 445–453. This is the first report of the results of a large prospective clinical trial testing the beneficial effects of carotid endarterectomy. The paper provides a critical review of factors associated with previous inconsistent results obtained using the surgical procedure.
3.
CrouseJRThompsonCJ: An evaluation of methods for imaging and quantifying coronary and carotid lumen stenosis and atherosclerosis. Circulation1993, 87 (suppl II):II17–II33.
RossR: The pathogenesis of atherosclerosis: An update. N Engl Med1986, 314: 488–500. An update of a landmark paper that, through careful reading of our knowledge of atherosclerosis gathered this century, proposes a new pathogenetic interpretation of the process and suggests focusing research efforts on new morphological targets.
6.
GlagovSZarinsCGiddensDP: Hemodynamics and atherosclerosis. Arch Pathol Lab Med1988, 112: 1018–1031. This is a comprehensive review of the relationships between hemodynamic and morphological factors in atherogenesis that describes and discusses critical experimental work. New working hypotheses are presented.
7.
GlagovSWeisenbergEZarinsCKStankunaviciusRKolettisGJ: Compensatory enlargement of human atherosclerotic coronary arteries. N Engl J Med1987, 316: 1371–1375. A critical work that presents the original data suggesting the existence of arterial remodeling. Potential weaknesses of angiography in detecting the early stages of atherosclerosis are highlighted.
8.
MercuriM: Noninvasive imaging protocols to detect and monitor carotid atherosclerosis progression. Am J Hypertens1994, 7: 235–295. A review of the work carried out to fulfill the original goals set to establish B-mode ultrasound as a quantitative tool for vascular diagnosis.
9.
PignoliPTremoliEPoliAOrestePPaolettiR: Intimal plus medial thickness of the arterial wall: A direct measurement with ultrasound imaging. Circulation1986, 74: 1399–1406. A landmark study describing the original identification of the double-line pattern and presenting the experimental work performed to validate this hypothesis.
10.
MercuriMBondMG: B-mode ultrasound characterization of atherosclerosis. J Cardiovasc Tech1992, 10: 277–291. A report on the experimental studies performed to test the ability of B-mode ultrasound to differentiate between plaque morphologies. A review of other methodologies is presented.
11.
O'LearyDHBryanFAGoodisonMWRifkinMDGramiakRBallM: Measurement variability of carotid atherosclerosis: Real-time (B-mode) ultrasonography and angiography. Stroke1987, 18: 1011–1017.
12.
RicottaJJBryanFABondMGKurtzAO'LearyDHRainesJK: Multicenter validation study of real-time (B-mode) ultrasound, arteriography, and pathologic examination. J Vasc Surg1987, 6: 512–520.
13.
SchenkEABondMGAretzTHAngeloJNChoiHYRynalskiT: Multicenter validation study of real-time ultrasonography, arteriography, and pathology: Pathologic evaluation of carotid endarterectomy specimens. Stroke1988, 19: 289–296.
14.
The ARIC Investigators: The Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) Study: Design and objectives. Am J Epidemiol1989, 129: 687–702. A description of the design and objectives of the first and largest (16 000 randomly selected people from four US communities) epidemiological study to use carotid B-mode ultrasound endpoints.
15.
BondMGWilmothSKEnevoldGLStricklandHL: Detection and monitoring of asymptomatic atherosclerosis in clinical trials. Am J Med1989, 86 (suppl 4A):33–36.
16.
MercuriMBondMGNicholsFTCarrAAFlackJMByingtonR, For the MIDAS Group: Baseline reproducibility of B-mode ultrasound imaging measurements of carotid intima—media thickness: The Multicenter Isradipine Diuretic Atherosclerosis Study (MIDAS). J Cardiovasc Diagn Proc1993, 11: 241–256. This is one of the first comprehensive attempts to define the reproducibility of ultrasound measurements in a multicenter clinical trial. An extensive review of methodological issues is also presented.
17.
RileyWABarnesRWApplegateWBDempseyRHartwellTDavisVG: Reproducibility of noninvasive ultrasonic measurement of carotid atherosclerosis. The Asymptomatic Carotid Artery Plaque Study. Stroke1992, 23: 1062–1068.
18.
LusianiLVisonàAPagnanA: Non-invasive study of arterial hypertension and carotid atherosclerosis. Stroke1990, 21: 410–414.
19.
Bonithon-KoppCScarabinP-YTaquetATouboulP-JMalmejacAGuizeL: Risk factors for early carotid atherosclerosis in middle-aged French women. Stroke1991, 11: 966–972.
20.
PratiPVanuzzoDCasaroliMDi ChiaraADe BiasiFFeruglioGA, et al: Prevalence and determinants of carotid atherosclerosis in a general population. Stroke1992, 23: 1705–1711.
21.
TellGSHowardGMcKinneyWM: Risk factors for site-specific extracranial carotid artery plaque distribution as measured by B-mode ultrasound. J Epidemiol1989, 42: 551–559.
HandaNMatsumotoMMaedaHHougakuHOgawaSFugunagaR: Ultrasonic evaluation of early carotid atherosclerosis. Stroke1990, 21: 1567–1572.
24.
HeissGSharretARBarnesRChamblessLESzkloMAlzolaC, And the ARIC Investigators: Carotid atherosclerosis measured by B-mode ultrasound in populations: Association with cardiovascular risk factors in the ARIC Study. Am J Epidemiol1991, 134: 250–256. This is the first report from the ARIC study dealing with predictors of carotid intima—media thickness. Cardiovascular risk factors were tested to determine their association with B-mode ultrasound outcome measures.
25.
O'LearyDHPolakJFKronmalRAKittnerSJBondMGWolfsonSKJr, On behalf of the CHS Collaborative Research Group: Distribution and correlates of sonographically detected carotid artery disease in the Cardiovascular Health Study. Stroke1992, 23: 1752–1760. This report presents details of the correlates of carotid artery disease in a large epidemiological study of elderly people.
26.
SalonenRSalonenJT: Carotid atherosclerosis in relation to systolic and diastolic blood pressure: Kuopio Ischaemic Heart Disease Risk Factor Study. Ann Med1991, 23: 23–27.
27.
BotsMLBreslauPJBrietEDe BruynAMVan VlietHDMvan der OuwelandFA: Cardiovascular determinants of carotid artery disease. The Rotterdam Elderly Study. Hypertension1992, 19: 717–720.
28.
SalonenRSalonenJT: Progression of carotid atherosclerosis and its determinants: A population-based ultrasonography study. Atherosclerosis1990, 81: 33–40. This is the first prospective analysis of changes in intima—media thickness over time. The paper reports factors predicting the progression of carotid disease in an observational study. This remains one of the few studies to report the progression of carotid intima—media thickening in a ‘true’ control group.
29.
The MIDAS Research Group, Furberg CD, Byington RD, Borhani NA: Multicenter Isradipine/Diuretic Atherosclerosis Study (MIDAS). Am J Med1989, 86: 37–39. This paper presents the design of the first interventional clinical trial to test the effects of calcium antagonists and diuretics on intima—media thickening of the carotid artery.
30.
ZanchettiAMagnaniBDal PalùC, On behalf of the Verapamil Hypertension Atherosclerosis Study (VHAS) Investigators: Atherosclerosis and calcium antagonists: The VHAS. J Hum Hypertens1992, 6 (suppl 2):S45–S48.
31.
BondMGDal PalùCHanssonLMagnaniBManciaSNeissA: ELSA, European Lacidipine Study on Atherosclerosis [abstract]. J Hypertens1993, 11 (suppl 5):S405.
32.
ZanchettiA: Calcium antagonists in atherosclerosis and assessment of their effect in clinical trials: The European Lacidipine Study on Atherosclerosis (ELSA). JAMA Southeast Asia1994, 10: 44–47.
33.
LudwigMStumpeKOHeagerlyAMKollochREManciaGSafarM, On behalf of the PROTECT Study Group: Vascular wall thickness in hypertension: The Peridopril Regression of Vascular Thickening European Community Trial (PROTECT)J Hypertens1993, 11 (suppl 5):S316–S317.
34.
The PHYLLIS Project Group: Plaque Hypertension Lipid-Lowering Italian Study (PHYLLIS): A Protocol for non-invasive evaluation of carotid atherosclerosis in hypercholesterolemic hypertensive subjects. J Hypertens1993, 11 (suppl 5):S314–S315.
