Observational studies and clinical experiments solidly establish an empiric relationship between heavy drinking (≥ 3 standard drinks/day) and higher blood pressure. A biologic mechanism for this link remains unclear. It has been difficult to study the incidence of usual hypertension sequelae in alcohol-associated hypertension because of complex interactions of alcohol, hypertension and cardiovascular conditions. Even with these limitations, a causal association is the most likely explanation and control of alcohol intake is probably important in prevention and treatment of hypertension.
LianC.L'alcoholisme cause d'hypertension arterielle. Bull Acad Med (Paris)1915; 74:525–528.
2.
KlatskyALFriedmanGDSiegelaubABGerardMJ.Alcohol consumption and blood pressure. N Engl J Med1977; 296:1194–2000.
3.
MacMahonS.Alcohol consumption and hypertension. Hypertension1987; 9:111–121.
4.
KeilUSwalesJDGrobbeeDE.Alcohol intake and its relation to hypertension. In: VerschurenPM (editor). Health issues related to alcohol consumption. Washington DC: ILSI Press; 1993. pp. 17–42.
5.
KlatskyAL.Alcohol and hypertension. In: OperilSWeberM (editors). Hypertension. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Co.; 2000. pp. 211–220.
6.
FriedmanGDKlatskyALSiegelaubAB.Alcohol intake and hypertension. Ann Int Med1983; 98:846–849.
7.
KlatskyALFriedmanGDArmstrongMA.The relationship between alcoholic beverage use and other traits to blood pressure: A new Kaiser Permanente study. Circulation1986; 73:628–636.
8.
WittemanJCWillettWCStampferMJColditzGAKokFJSacksFMRelation of moderate alcohol consumption and risk of systemic hypertension in women. Am J Cardiol1990; 65:633–637.
9.
AscherioARimmEBGiovannucciELColditzGARosnerBWillettWCA prospective study of nutritional factors and hypertension among US men. Circulation1992; 86:1475–1484.
10.
ArkwrightPDBeilinLJRouseILVandongenR.Alcohol, personality, and predisposition to essential hypertension. J Hypertens1983; 1:365–371.
11.
PotterJFBeeversDG.Pressor effect of alcohol in hypertension. Lancet1984; i:119–122.
12.
PuddeyIBBeilinLJVandongenRRouseIRRogersP.Evidence of a direct effect of alcohol consumption on blood pressure in normotensive men: A randomized controlled trial. Hypertension1985; 7:707–713.
13.
PuddeyIBBeilinLJVandongenR.Regular alcohol use raises blood pressure in treated hypertensives. Lancet1987; i:647–651.
14.
RakicVPuddeyIBBurkeVDimmittSBBeilinLJ.Influence of pattern of alcohol intake on blood pressure in regular drinkers: A controlled trial. J Hypertens1998; 16:165–174.
15.
CushmanWC.Alcohol consumption and blood pressure. J Clin Hypertens2001; 3:166–170.
16.
KlatskyAL.Moderate drinking and reduced risk of heart disease. Alcohol Res Health1999; 23:15–24.
17.
RenaudSCriquiMHFarchiGVeenstraJ.Alcohol drinking and coronary heart disease. In: VerschurenPM (editor): Health issues related to alcohol consumption. Washington DC: ILSI Press; 1993. pp. 43–80.
18.
ZakhariSGordisE.Moderate drinking and cardiovascular health. Proc Assoc Am Physicians1999; 111:148–158.
19.
LangerRDCriquiMHReedDM.Lipoproteins and blood pressure as biological pathways for effect of moderate alcohol consumption on coronary heart disease. Circulation1992; 85:910–915.
20.
Van GignJStampferMJWolfeCAlgraA.The association between alcohol consumption and stroke. In: VerschurenPM (editor): Health issues related to alcohol consumption. Washington DC: ILSI Press; 1993. pp. 43–80.
21.
CamargoCAJr.Case-control and cohort studies of moderate alcohol consumption and stroke. Clin Chim Acta1996; 246:107–119.
22.
KlatskyALArmstrongMAFriedmanGD.Alcohol use and subsequent cerebrovascular disease hospitalizations. Stroke1989; 20:741–746.
23.
SaccoRLElkindMBoden-AlbalaBLinIFKargmanDEHauserWAThe protective effect of moderate alcohol consumption on ischemic stroke. JAMA1999; 281:53–60.
24.
KlatskyALArmstrongMASidneySFriedmanGD, Alcohol drinking and risk of ischemic stroke. Am J Cardiol2001; 88:703–706.
25.
PalmerAJFletcherAEBulpittCJBeeversDGColesECLedinghamJGAlcohol intake and cardiovascular mortality in hypertensive patients: Report from the Department of Health Hypertension Care Computing Project. J Hypertens1995; 13:957–964.
26.
AbramsonJLWilliamsSAKrumholzHMVacarrinoV.Moderate alcohol consumption and risk of heart failure among older persons. JAMA2001; 285:1971–1977.
27.
KlatskyAL.Should patients with heart disease drink alcohol? (editorial). JAMA2001; 285:2004–2005.
28.
PernegerTVWheltonPKPuddeyIBKlagMJ.Risk of end-stage renal disease associated with alcohol consumption. Am J Epidemiol1999; 150:1275–1281.
29.
BeilinLJPuddeyIBBurkeV.Lifestyle and hypertension. Am J Hypertens1999; 12:934–945.
30.
Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation and Treatment of High Blood Pressure. The Sixth Report of the Joint National Committee (JNC VI). Arch Int Med1997; 157:2413–2446.
