Teacher leadership is increasingly recognised as a strategic driver of instructional quality and sustainable school improvement. However, the multidimensional and context-sensitive nature of the construct necessitates empirical validation when instruments are transferred across different linguistic, organisational and policy contexts. This study translated and psychometrically validated the Teacher Leadership Scale within Oman's centralised educational system. Using responses from 1086 public school teachers, exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were conducted to examine the scale's factorial structure. Findings supported a contextually reorganised three-factor structure (Professional Practices, Association and Collective Work and Community Engagement) explaining 62.40% of the variance and diverging from the original six-factor structure. All 32 original items were retained, indicating that teacher leadership practices remained conceptually stable while their factorial structure differed in the Omani context. A bifactor model demonstrated the best overall fit, indicating a strong general teacher leadership factor alongside specific domains. Measurement invariance testing supported configural but not metric invariance across gender, suggesting caution in cross-gender comparisons. The study provides a psychometrically validated and contextually adapted version of the Teacher Leadership Scale, contributing to cross-contextual scholarship on teacher leadership measurement and informing leadership development efforts in Arab school systems.
Al-Mahdy, YFH and Emam, MM (2023) School leadership practice in Oman: An investigation of authentic leadership, teacher engagement and turnover intention. In: International encyclopedia of education. 4th ed. Vol. 4, pp. 501–509. Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818630-5.05065-X.
2.
Al-Mahdy YFH, Hallinger P, Omara E and Emam, M (2024) Exploring how power distance influences principal instructional leadership effects on teacher agency and classroom instruction in Oman: A moderated-mediation analysis. Educational Management Administration & Leadership, 52(4), 878–900. https://doi.org/10.1177/17411432221113912.
3.
AlharthiF (2024) Gender differences in perceptions of leadership and their influence on motivation among faculty members of Taif University. Frontiers in Psychology15: 1476526. 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1476526.
4.
AngellePDeHartC (2010) A four factor model of teacher leadership: Construction and testing of the Teacher Leadership Inventory. In Annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Denver, CO.
5.
BatistaAWeberLDe ToniP (2016) Unidimensionality of the scales of the teacher leadership styles inventory–TLSI. Temas em Psicologia24(3): 843–853.
6.
BellibaşMŞGümüşSKilinçAÇ (2020) Principals supporting teacher leadership: The effects of learning-centred leadership on teacher leadership practices with the mediating role of teacher agency. European Journal of Education, 55(2), 200–216.
7.
ByrneBMvan de VijverFJR (2010) Testing for measurement and structural equivalence in large-scale cross-cultural studies: Addressing the issue of nonequivalence. International Journal of Testing10(2): 107–132.
8.
ChenFZhangZ (2018) Bifactor models in psychometric test development. In: IrwingPBoothTHughesDJ (eds) The wiley handbook of psychometric testing: A multidisciplinary reference on survey, scale and test development, 325–345. Chichester, UK: Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118489772.ch12.
9.
ChenJ (2020) Understanding teacher leaders’ behaviours: Development and validation of the teacher leadership inventory. Educational Management Administration & Leadership50(4): 630–648.
10.
Comrey AL and Lee HB (1992) A first course in factor analysis. 2nd ed. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
11.
CostelloAOsborneJ (2005) Best practices in exploratory factor analysis: Four recommendations for getting the most from your analysis. Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation10(7): –9.
12.
DoğanYAkarHÜstünerM (2019) Examining the measurement invariance of the teachers’ sense of self-efficacy scale in terms of gender. International Journal of Evaluation and Research in Education8(2): 213–220.
13.
EaglyAHWoodW (2012) Social role theory. In: Van LangePAMKruglanskiAHigginsE (eds) Handbook of theories of social psychology. vol. 2, pp. 458–476. London, UK: Sage. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781446249222.n49.
14.
FoscoDRuttenLSchusslerD (2023) Understanding the relationships between teacher leadership and teacher wellbeing: A narrative review of theoretical and empirical literature. International Journal of Teacher Leadership12(1): 8–30.
15.
FrostD (Ed.) ( 2017) Empowering teachers as agents of change: A non-positional approach to teacher leadership. London, UK: Cambridge University Press.
16.
GayLMillsGAirasianP (2011) Educational research: Competencies for analysis and application. 10th ed.Boston, MA, USA: Prentice-Hall.
17.
GhamrawiNShalTGhamrawiNAR (2024) The rise and fall of teacher leadership: A post-pandemic phenomenological study. Leadership and Policy in Schools23(3): 662–677.
18.
HallingerP (2011) Leadership for learning: Lessons from 40 years of empirical research. Journal of Educational Administration49(2): 125–142.
19.
HallingerPDongyuLWangW (2016) Gender differences in instructional leadership: A meta-analytic review of studies using the principal instructional management rating scale. Educational Administration Quarterly52(4): 567–601.
20.
HambletonR (2005) Issues, designs, and technical guidelines for adapting tests into multiple languages and cultures. In: HambletonRKMerendaPFSpielbergerC (eds) Adapting educational and psychological tests for cross-cultural assessment. Mahwah, NJ, USA: Lawrence Erlbaum Publishers, 3–38.
21.
HammadWHallingerP (2017) A systematic review of conceptual models and methods used in research on educational leadership and management in Arab societies. School Leadership & Management37(5): 434–456.
22.
HammadWPolatcanMMoradH (2024) Investigating links between teacher leadership, collective efficacy and teacher commitment in Egyptian schools: A mediated-effects analysis. International Journal of Educational Management38(3): 750–768.
23.
HammadWSawalhiRAl-HarthiAS, et al. (2025) Perceptions of teacher leadership in the Arab region: A comparative analysis of three countries. Educational Management Administration & Leadership53(2): 258–278.
24.
HarrisA (2003) Teacher leadership as distributed leadership: Heresy, fantasy or possibility?School Leadership & Management23(3): 313–324.
25.
HarrisA (2005) Teacher leadership: More than just a feel-good factor?Leadership and Policy in Schools4(3): 201–219.
26.
HarrisA (2008) Distributed leadership: According to the evidence. Journal of Educational Administration46(2): 172–188.
HarrisAMuijsD (2004) Improving schools through teacher leadership. Maidenhead: Open University Press.
29.
HilalYYMifsudDHammadW (2024) Female educational leadership in the Arab world: A systematic review of published research literature. International Journal of Leadership in Education. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603124.2024.2316655
KatzenmeyerMMollerG (2009) Awakening the sleeping giant: Leadership development for teachers. Thousand Oaks, CA, USA: Corwin Press.
32.
KhanT (2022) Transforming Teacher Leadership Capacity in Secondary Schools. Doctoral dissertation, University of Bridgeport.
33.
ManginMM (2007) Facilitating elementary principals’ support for instructional teacher leadership. Educational Administration Quarterly43(3): 319–357.
34.
MayrowetzD (2008) Making sense of distributed leadership: Exploring the multiple usages of the concept in the field. Educational Administration Quarterly44(3): 424–435.
35.
MeadeAJohnsonEBraddyP (2008) Power and sensitivity of alternative fit indices in tests of measurement invariance. Journal of Applied Psychology93(3): 568–592.
36.
MilfontTFischerR (2010) Testing measurement invariance across groups: Applications in cross-cultural research. International Journal of Psychological Research3: 111–130.
37.
Ministry of Education (2018) Omani Teacher Excellence Award. Muscat, Oman: Ministry of Education.
38.
Ministry of Education (2023) Guide to School Councils, Committees and Teams. Muscat, Oman: Ministry of Education.
39.
Ministry of Education (2024) Digital Oman. Al-Manar Newsletter24.
40.
MuijsDHarrisA (2006) Teacher led school improvement: Teacher leadership in the UK. Teaching and Teacher Education22(8): 961–972.
41.
NguyenDHarrisANgD (2020) A review of the empirical research on teacher leadership (2003–2017): Evidence, patterns and implications. Journal of Educational Administration58(1): 60–80.
42.
Oman Vision 2040 Committee. (2020) Oman Vision 2040: The national vision document. Muscat, Oman: Oman Vision 2040 Implementation Follow-up Unit.
43.
OplatkaIArarK (2017) The research on educational leadership and management in the Arab world since the 1990s: A systematic review. Review of Education5(3): 267–307.
44.
PatilVSinghSMishraS, et al. (2008) Efficient theory development and factor retention criteria: Abandon the ‘eigenvalue greater than one’ criterion. Journal of Business Research61(2): 162–170.
45.
PettMLackeyNSullivanJ (2003) Making sense of factor analysis: The use of factor analysis for instrument development in health care research. Thousand Oaks, CA, USA: Sage Publications, Inc.
46.
PutnickDBornsteinM (2016) Measurement invariance conventions and reporting: The state of the art and future directions for psychological research. Developmental Review41: 71–90.
47.
QanayGAnderson-PayneEBallS, et al. (2019) Developing teacher leadership in Kazakhstan. International Journal of Teacher Leadership10(1): 53–64.
48.
R Core Team (2020) R: A language and environment for statistical computing [Computer software manual]. http://www.R-project.org/
49.
ReiseSP (2012) The rediscovery of bifactor measurement models. Multivariate Behavioral Research47(5): 667–696.
50.
SavaşGArslanKKilinçAÇ (2026) When teacher leadership backfires: Exploring the unintended consequences of teacher leadership. Educational Management Administration & Leadership54(1): 90–111.
51.
SawalhiR (2019) Teacher leadership in government schools in Qatar: Opportunities and challenges. PhD thesis, University of Warwick.
52.
SchmittTA (2011) Current methodological considerations in exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment29(4): 304–321.
53.
SchumackerRLomaxR (2016) A beginner’s guide to structural equation modeling. 4th ed.New York, NY, USA: Routledge.
54.
SilvaDGimbertBNolanJ (2000) Sliding the doors: Locking and unlocking possibilities for teacher leadership. Teachers College Record102(4): 779–804.
55.
SmylieMADennyJW (1990) Teacher leadership: Tensions and ambiguities in organizational perspective. Educational Administration Quarterly26(3): 235–259.
56.
SpillaneJP (2006) Distributed leadership. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
ThompsonB (2004) Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis: Understanding concepts and applications. Washington, DC, USA: American Psychological Association.
59.
TsaiK (2017) Development of the teacher leadership style scale. Social Behaviour and Personality45(3): 477–490.
60.
VandenbergRJLanceCE (2000) A review and synthesis of the measurement invariance literature: Suggestions, practices, and recommendations for organizational research. Organizational Research Methods3(1): 4–70.
61.
van de VijverFJRLeungK (1997) Methods and data analysis for cross-cultural research. Thousand Oaks, CA, USA: Sage Publications.
WatkinsM (2018) Exploratory factor analysis: A guide to best practice. Journal of Black Psychology44(3): 219–246.
64.
WennerJACampbellT (2017) The theoretical and empirical basis of teacher leadership: A review of the literature. Review of Educational Research87(1): 134–171.
65.
WiensPDVongkulluksnVBeckJ, et al. (2025) Understanding teacher leadership: Development and testing of the survey of teacher leadership. Social Sciences & Humanities Open12: 101738.
66.
WorthingtonRLWhittakerTA (2006) Scale development research: A content analysis and recommendations for best practices. The Counseling Psychologist34(6): 806–838.
67.
XieCSongPHuH (2021) Measuring teacher leadership in different domains of practice: Development and validation of the teacher leadership scale. Asia-Pacific Education Researcher30(5): 409–419.
68.
XuLStewartTHaber-CurranP (2015) Measurement invariance of the servant leadership questionnaire across K-12 principal gender. School Leadership & Management35(2): 202–214.
69.
XuLWubbenaZStewartT (2016) Measurement invariance of second-order factor model of the multifactor leadership questionnaire (MLQ) across K-12 principal gender. Journal of Educational Administration54(6): 727–748.
70.
York-BarrJDukeK (2004) What do we know about teacher leadership? Findings from two decades of scholarship. Review of Educational Research74(3): 255–316.
71.
YuetFYusofHMohamadS (2016) Development and validation of the teacher leadership competency scale. Malaysian Journal of Learning and Instruction13(2): 43–69.
