Abstract
This study investigates how primary school leaders build high levels of faculty trust by integrating Transformational (TL), Instructional (IL) and Distributed Leadership (DL) within a highly centralised education system. Using a sequential mixed-methods multi-case design, survey data from 1320 teachers across 85 public schools identified five high-trust sites for in-depth qualitative inquiry through interviews and observations. Principals in these schools enacted context-responsive blends of leadership; articulated shared moral purpose and vision (TL), sustained instructional quality and credibility (IL) and empowered teachers through participatory decision-making (DL). Trust functioned simultaneously as a precondition and a product of these practices, reinforcing collaboration, collective efficacy and professional learning despite systemic constraints. Contextual variables – particularly governance centralisation, school size and relational culture – shaped how integration occurred. School leaders can strengthen trust by modelling fairness and transparency, engaging meaningfully with teaching and learning and sharing decision-making that recognises teacher expertise. Leadership preparation programmes should subsequently prioritise the development of these relational, instructional and collaborative competencies that enable principals to build cohesive, trust-rich school cultures within policy-driven environments. Ultimately, the study advances understanding of how integrated, trust-based leadership sustains professional cohesion and organisational resilience, offering a transferable model for leadership in both centralised and decentralised education systems.
Keywords
Introduction
The role of school leadership in promoting effectiveness is widely acknowledged in the educational literature (Darling-Hammond et al., 2022; Day et al., 2016; Leithwood et al., 2020). School leaders play a crucial role in shaping the school's vision, structures and daily practices that support teaching and learning (Leithwood, 2005). Educational leadership is broadly defined as a process of influencing others towards achieving shared objectives (Northouse, 2019). It is most convincingly understood as both a process of purposeful influence and a multi-dimensional practice. Bush and Glover (2003) emphasise leadership as a values-driven process of shaping and articulating a vision, influencing staff and stakeholders and aligning school structures towards achieving shared goals. This definition underscores leadership as more than a managerial oversight, positioning it as a dynamic act of guiding communities through vision and influence. Day et al. (2016) complement this perspective by expanding leadership into a holistic framework of practices, including defining values and direction, redesigning organisations, enhancing teaching and learning, developing staff and cultivating relationships within and beyond the school community. Together, these views situate educational leadership as simultaneously normative and operational; rooted in the moral purpose of education while enacted through deliberate practices that sustain effective teaching, foster professional growth and promote equitable student outcomes.
Research have increasingly highlighted the critical role of context in shaping effective school leadership (Argyropoulou and Lintzerakou, 2025; Belchetz and Leithwood, 2007; Hallinger, 2018). Educational environments, particularly those functioning within centralised systems, present a variety of unique challenges that necessitate leaders to adapt their strategies thoughtfully (Kershner and McQuillan, 2016). Such an adaptation is deemed essential for navigating the complexities of institutional mandates, policy frameworks and the diverse sociocultural backdrop of their communities. As a result, there has been a significant transformation in how school leadership is perceived; instead of adhering to a rigid, one-size-fits-all approach, the focus has shifted to a more dynamic, nuanced model (Brezicha et al., 2015; Hallinger, 2011; O'Sullivan and Mac Ruairc, 2023). This perspective prioritises flexibility and responsiveness, empowering school leaders to tailor their methods and practices to effectively meet the distinctive needs and circumstances of their educational settings.
Leadership styles, defined by distinctive behaviour, interpersonal qualities and decision-making strategies, play a pivotal role in how school leaders motivate staff and foster school improvement (Gandolfi and Stone, 2018; Nawaz and Khan, 2016). These styles also help clarify and understand events and activities within schools and other educational institutions (Bush, 2025). Among the most studied styles in educational contexts are Transformational leadership (TL) (Bass, 1985; Leithwood, 1994), Instructional leadership (IL) (Hallinger and Murphy, 1985) and Distributed leadership (DL) (Gronn, 2002; Spillane et al., 2001). TL emphasises vision, motivation and personal growth; IL centres on teaching and learning processes; while DL involves delegating leadership tasks across the school staff. Literature has confirmed the enduring relevance of these models and their contributions to enhancing teacher efficacy, student achievement and overall school capacity (Eliophotou-Menon and Ioannou, 2016; Gümüş et al., 2018; Sirisookslip et al., 2015).
Trust has emerged as a foundational relational dimension that mediates the impact of leadership on school outcomes (Chughtai and Buckley, 2009; Edwards-Groves and Grootenboer, 2021; Louis and Murphy, 2017). Trust is conceptualised as a willingness to be vulnerable, grounded in positive expectations of another person's intentions and actions (Mayer et al., 1995). In schools, trust in the principal is widely understood as being shaped by teachers’ perceptions of integrity, competence, openness, respect and benevolence (Bryk and Schneider, 2002; Hoy and Tschannen-Moran, 2003). A recent study in Cyprus by Keravnos and Symeou (2024) verified these seminal conceptualisations, demonstrating that principals’ everyday practices, such as fairness, reliability, open communication and supportiveness, translate these dimensions into action, thereby affirming the universality of trust-building processes across cultural contexts. Empirical studies have consistently shown that high levels of faculty trust are associated with stronger collaboration (Wahlstrom and Louis, 2008), commitment to change (Louis, 2007) and enhanced professional learning (Yue et al., 2019).
Despite growing scholarly interest in how leadership cultivates trust in schools, a significant gap persists in empirical research examining how principals effectively integrate multiple leadership styles to navigate complex contexts and challenges. Leadership is rarely enacted through a single approach; instead, it unfolds as a dynamic combination of leadership models. Leadership effects appear to be mediated through multiple organisational pathways (Hallinger and Heck, 2010) and the integration of styles, particularly DL, TL and IL, is associated with stronger organisational performance (Kwan, 2019; Leithwood and Jantzi, 2006; Liu et al., 2020; Marks and Printy, 2003). Longitudinal evidence has also shown that successful leaders adaptively combine strategies in response to contextual demands and phases of school improvement (Day et al., 2016). Yet, the practical manifestations of such integration remain underexplored, particularly in systems where school autonomy is constrained by centralised governance. Recent reviews highlight that leadership research continues to privilege isolated style effects and direct links with outcomes, while paying limited attention to the interplay and synthesis of approaches (Özdemir et al., 2022). Likewise, literature reaffirms the multi-faceted nature of leadership, showing that effective principals enact a diverse repertoire of practices spanning instructional management, capacity building and external engagement, rather than adhering to a single leadership style (Leithwood et al., 2020; Pietsch et al., 2023; Tan et al., 2021). This lacuna is particularly salient in centralised educational systems, where leaders manoeuvre within top-down policy directives while simultaneously addressing the specific needs of their schools (Argyropoulou and Lintzerakou, 2025). Collectively, these gaps suggest that the field has yet to adequately theorise and empirically investigate the processes through which the integration of leadership styles appears to foster trust and contribute to organisational capacity in schools.
This study draws on the concept of integrated or hybrid leadership (Gronn, 2010; Halverson and Clifford, 2013; Leithwood and Azah, 2017), exploring how highly trusted principals in Cyprus blend TL, IL and DL into a context-responsive model, rather than alternating between discrete styles, strategically synthesising elements of each approach to navigate institutional demands and promote faculty trust. The study contributes to the literature by offering a contextually grounded understanding of how highly trusted school leaders blend these three prominent leadership styles and how their leadership is influenced by system-level and organisational factors. Through this focus, the study aims to deepen conceptual understanding of leadership integration and to offer practical insights for leadership development in similarly centralised systems. The following research questions guide the study:
What leadership styles are most frequently associated with school leaders in high-trust school environments? How do highly trusted school leaders combine elements of TL, IL and DL in practice? How do contextual factors affect the application of these leadership styles?
By addressing these questions, the study aims to advance the field's understanding of context-sensitive, relational leadership in schools and to inform policy and practice in leadership training and school improvement strategies.
Literature review
This review explores the intersection of school leadership and trust, focusing on how leadership styles contribute to cultivating and sustaining trust in educational settings. Trust is increasingly recognised as foundational to effective school functioning, influencing collaboration, staff morale and student achievement (Bryk and Schneider, 2002; Louis and Murphy, 2017; Tschannen-Moran and Gareis, 2017). The review examines the three dominant leadership styles – DL, TL and IL – and synthesises research on their distinct and overlapping contributions to trust-building. In doing so, it also considers the contextual and relational factors shaping leadership enactment and trust perceptions.
School leadership and trust
Trust within schools is a complex, multi-dimensional construct. Hoy and Tschannen-Moran (2003) define trust in schools as comprising three interrelated domains: trust in the principal, trust in colleagues and trust in students and parents. In this view, trust is not an abstract idea but a behavioural and relational condition built through perceived benevolence, reliability, competence, honesty and openness. School leaders build trust through ethical behaviour, transparent decision-making and responsiveness to staff needs (Bukko et al., 2021). Trust has been consistently highlighted as central to effective leadership (Hoy and Tschannen-Moran, 2003; Louis and Murphy, 2017), as the presence of relationships founded on cooperation and it allows the formation of strong school cultures that positively affect the productivity and performance of all school partners (Coleman, 2012; Kalkan et al., 2020). Trust also enhances perceptions of the organisation's commitment to achieving its strategic aims (Niedlich et al., 2021).
In the Cypriot context, leadership effectiveness is closely associated with relational trust and contextually responsive practices (Keravnos and Symeou, 2024; Pashiardis and Kafa, 2022). More broadly, Bush (2015) underscores that leadership is not confined to technical or strategic actions but also depends on cultivating cultures of trust and support within schools. International scholarship reinforces this perspective. Bryk and Schneider (2002) identify trust among teachers, principals and parents as a core resource for collaboration, professional commitment and school improvement. Louis (2007) conceptualises trust as both a precondition for and an outcome of effective leadership, enabling organisational learning and shared responsibility. Tschannen-Moran (2014) argues that trust is integral to building positive school climates, reducing teacher vulnerability and fostering collective efficacy. More recent studies extend these insights, showing that trust develops through interdependence, transparency and reciprocity across relationships and is therefore central to sustaining collaboration and improvement in schools (Kolleck, 2023; Nadeem, 2024; Niedlich et al., 2021).
Research has traditionally concentrated on the trust that teachers place in their principals (Handford and Leithwood, 2013). However, the concept of reciprocal trust, in which leaders also extend their trust to teachers, is equally significant (Dedering and Pietsch, 2025). Mutual trust creates a powerful reinforcing feedback loop within a school environment. When principals exhibit trust in their teachers, they empower them to take initiative and make decisions, fostering a sense of ownership and responsibility. As a result, the empowered teachers are more likely to reciprocate by trusting their principals, thereby strengthening their professional relationships. This cycle of trust fosters a more positive, collaborative school climate, which is essential to the overall well-being of both staff and students (Louis and Murphy, 2017). Environments characterised by high levels of trust correlate with enhanced academic performance, increased collaboration among educators and a greater readiness to implement changes in teaching practices (Bryk and Schneider, 2002; Darling-Hammond and Cook-Harvey, 2018; Hulpia et al., 2009). By prioritising trust in their interactions, school leaders and teachers can create a thriving educational community that supports student success (Sun et al., 2023).
Leadership styles and trust
The effectiveness of school leadership is closely tied to its capacity to foster trust-based relationships and, through these, enhance overall school performance (Baptiste, 2019). While certain individual traits, such as emotional intelligence or charisma, may facilitate this process, leadership is not a fixed quality but a set of behaviours that can be developed through professional learning and reflective practice (Pellitteri, 2021). Adaptability is particularly critical, as it enables school leaders to navigate diverse expectations while sustaining relational credibility with teachers and other stakeholders. Evidence consistently shows that leadership approaches grounded in relational influence are strongly associated with higher levels of faculty trust (Karacabey et al., 2022). Within this body of research, three frameworks stand out as both conceptually robust and empirically supported, namely TL, IL and DL (Gümüş et al., 2018). TL has been shown to enhance trust by articulating vision, modelling high expectations and engaging relationally with teachers (Leithwood and Jantzi, 2000). IL fosters trust through competence and a sustained focus on teaching and learning processes, thereby strengthening teacher efficacy and professional credibility (Hallinger and Murphy, 1985). Ultimately, DL fosters trust by empowering staff, promoting shared decision-making and encouraging collective responsibility for school improvement (Spillane et al., 2001). Together, these styles underscore the pivotal role of leadership in fostering the relational trust that underpins effective and sustainable school improvement.
TL and trust
TL, introduced by Bass (1985) and developed further by Leithwood (1994) in educational settings, involves articulating a compelling vision, demonstrating moral purpose and fostering professional growth. TL enhances trust by promoting mutual respect, shared goals and individualised support (Mansor et al., 2021). Teachers in TL-led schools often feel inspired, included and valued, which strengthens both affective and cognitive trust (Wilson Heenan et al., 2023). These effects are especially significant in highly centralised systems, where school leaders lack structural autonomy and must rely on relational influence to shape school climate and staff commitment (Menon, 2025). In such environments, TL provides a powerful mechanism for aligning school communities around shared values and for buffering the rigidity of top-down policy through motivational leadership (Sun and Leithwood, 2015).
Critics of TL point to its conceptual overlap with other styles and its occasional reliance on charismatic authority (Tourish, 2013). Nonetheless, research affirms that when grounded in ethical and relational intent, TL is associated with teacher motivation, organisational commitment and school effectiveness (Eliophotou-Menon and Ioannou, 2016). Research also suggests that TL can indirectly shape teachers’ innovative practices through the mediating role of teacher commitment, with trust in the principal moderating this mediated relationship and amplifying its effect (Kılınç et al., 2022). In the Cypriot context, where bureaucratic constraints limit direct managerial discretion, TL has been widely linked with successful school leadership (Menon, 2025; Pashiardis et al., 2011; Pashiardis and Kafa, 2022), offering evidence that visionary and relational leadership not only builds trust but also strengthens organisational identity in systemically constrained environments.
IL and trust
IL, places teaching and learning at the core of the leader's role (Hallinger and Murphy, 1985). It includes setting academic goals, promoting reflective dialogue, monitoring instruction and supporting professional learning (Blase and Blase, 2000; Hallinger et al., 2015). Trust is central to IL because it underpins the open exchange of pedagogical ideas and sustained collaboration (Hallam et al., 2015). School leaders who practice IL build trust by demonstrating instructional competence, investing in teacher growth and aligning professional development with student needs. When leaders are visible in classrooms and genuinely engaged with instructional processes, they cultivate credibility and strengthen faculty trust (Stronge and Xu, 2021).
In highly centralised systems, IL faces unique challenges. Limited school-level autonomy in curriculum, assessment and staffing can reduce School leaders’ capacity to tailor pedagogical initiatives to local needs (Pashiardis and Kafa, 2022). Additionally, central mandates often burden school leaders with administrative responsibilities, restricting the time available for classroom engagement (Darling-Hammond et al., 2022). Despite these barriers, effective IL remains applicable when school leaders leverage relational trust to facilitate teacher learning communities, encourage professional dialogue and embed evaluation into instructional support rather than compliance (Hallinger and Hosseingholizadeh, 2019; Şenol and Lesinger, 2018).
DL and trust
DL is a collaborative leadership approach that emphasises shared responsibility among various individuals and teams in guiding a school (Gronn, 2002; Spillane et al., 2001). Rather than being concentrated in a select few individuals at the top, this model fosters an inclusive environment where teachers are encouraged to take the lead on initiatives, actively participate in decision-making and collaboratively shape the school's vision and direction (Nadeem, 2024). A fundamental aspect of DL is trust, which acts as both a prerequisite for and a result. School leaders demonstrate confidence in teachers’ professional expertise, empowering them to exercise authority and influence. In turn, teachers build trust in the system, knowing that their insights and contributions are acknowledged and valued. This reciprocal trust not only enhances collaboration but also cultivates a sense of ownership and commitment to the school's success among all community members, ultimately leading to meaningful improvements within the school environment (Ma and Marion, 2025).
When implemented intentionally, DL fosters teacher autonomy, collective efficacy and mutual respect (Bektaş et al., 2022). In turn, these conditions enhance trust not only in the principal but also across the school community. In centralised education systems, such as those in Cyprus, where decision-making authority is highly restricted and hierarchical norms are entrenched, formal opportunities for shared leadership may be limited (Brauckmann and Schwarz, 2014; Karamanidou, 2025). Yet, research suggests that DL can still thrive through informal structures, relationship-building and trust-based delegation (Bush and Ng, 2019). School leaders in such systems often rely on professional capital and internal networks to promote collaboration, circumventing bureaucratic constraints while respecting formal accountability lines (Hargreaves and Fullan, 2012).
School-level variables, such as organisational culture and staff size, also mediate DL success. In smaller schools with strong relational climates, DL can be enacted organically through informal mentoring and collegial planning (Devos et al., 2014). In larger schools, structured teams and designated leadership roles may be necessary to operationalise shared leadership effectively (Pan and Chen, 2024). Regardless of the form, DL contributes to a high-trust environment by signalling inclusivity, recognising teacher expertise and reinforcing shared ownership of school improvement. Recent Cypriot scholarship reinforces the contextual relevance of DL in fostering teacher agency and professional capital. Karamanidou (2025) highlights how Cypriot principals and teachers co-construct leadership through shared professional inquiry, even within a centralised administrative framework. Such findings align with the present study's focus on leadership integration as a relational, context-responsive process rather than a formal delegation of authority.
Towards integrated or hybrid leadership
While TL, IL and DL have mainly been studied as discrete paradigms, recent scholarship suggests that school leaders increasingly enact integrated or hybrid models that combine their complementary strengths (Bush, 2025; Leithwood et al., 2020). Bush (2025) emphasises that the global interest in leadership hybridity reflects growing recognition that effective leadership is context-dependent and value-driven, rather than confined to a single theoretical model. This perspective is consistent with earlier foundational work highlighting that blending leadership practices enhances school improvement and instructional quality. For instance, Leithwood et al. (2020) argue that successful leaders draw on a shared repertoire of core practices that cut across TL, IL and DL frameworks, adapting their combinations to local needs. Similarly, Robinson et al., (2008) demonstrate that the impact of leadership on student outcomes is most substantial when leaders combine elements of TL and IL to foster teaching quality and organisational capacity. Marks and Printy (2003) also provide empirical support for the synergistic benefits of integrating TL and IL, showing that such hybrids enhance teacher commitment and school performance. Gronn (2010) further theorises the notion of hybrid leadership, suggesting that leaders move fluidly between solo and DL configurations depending on situational demands. Yet, despite the growing conceptual and empirical support for integrated leadership models, their relationship with faculty trust remains largely indirect in the literature. Trust is frequently inferred as a by-product of relational leadership processes – such as collaboration, empowerment and professional dialogue – rather than being systematically examined as a core mediating construct (Harris, 2013). This indicates a continuing gap in understanding how the intentional blending of leadership styles directly influences the development and sustainability of professional trust within schools.
In educational systems with strong hierarchical structures, such as those in Cyprus, hybrid leadership may be crucial. Karamanidou (2025) demonstrates that Cypriot principals often navigate policy centralisation by informally combining DL and TL elements to strengthen teacher agency and professional capital. This integrative approach supports adaptive decision-making and fosters relational trust within constrained governance contexts. Trust-based frameworks reinforce the relational dimension of this hybridity. Coleman (2012) conceptualises trust as the moral and organisational glue binding professional collaboration, while Thorpe et al., (2011) situate DL within wider organisational cultures that depend on mutual respect and shared responsibility. These insights highlight that leadership integration is not merely functional but relational; it depends on leaders’ capacity to build and sustain trust across hierarchical and professional boundaries.
Overall, despite emerging perspectives, few empirical studies have examined how principals in centralised systems enact such integration in practice, or how it interacts with faculty trust. The present study attempts to addresses this gap by exploring how Cypriot primary school leaders blend TL, IL and DL to cultivate high-trust school cultures within a tightly regulated system.
Contextual factors and trust
Trust does not develop in isolation; it is shaped by the broader organisational and systemic contexts in which schools operate. According to Bryk and Schneider (2002) relational trust, founded on respect, integrity, personal regard and competence, is the key social resource enabling collaboration and sustained improvement. Subsequent scholarship has emphasised that the extent to which such trust can be cultivated may be influenced and conditioned by structural and organisational factors (Cosner, 2009; Kalkan, 2016). Hallinger (2018) argues that educational leadership should be understood within its institutional setting (Kim, 2020), where governance arrangements, accountability regimes and policy frameworks can either constrain or enable the building of trust. In highly centralised systems, limited autonomy in decision-making compels school leaders to rely more on relational capital to create discretionary spaces for professional action within externally imposed mandates (Karamanidou, 2025; Keravnos and Symeou, 2024; Pashiardis and Savvides, 2014).
Organisational factors, such as school size and internal structures, further shape how trust is enacted. Leithwood et al. (2020) note that smaller schools often foster close-knit, trust-based cultures that support informal collaboration. In contrast, larger schools typically require more formal mechanisms, such as teams and committees, to maintain relational trust across broader staff groups. Tschannen-Moran (2014) reinforces this view, emphasising that trust is both relational and systemic; it emerges from daily interactions but is also mediated by organisational routines and norms. Taken together, these insights suggest that trust in schools is contingent upon contextual conditions (Forsyth et al., 2011), ranging from governance structures to organisational configurations and functions, and serves as a critical adaptive resource that enables teachers and principals to navigate structural constraints and sustain collaborative work.
Methodology
This study employed a cross-sectional, sequential explanatory mixed-methods design (Creswell and Plano Clark, 2018; Onwuegbuzie and Collins, 2007), which enabled an in-depth exploration of leadership practices and faculty trust through a combination of cross-sectional survey data and contemporaneous qualitative inquiry. The design facilitated the identification of high-trust school contexts through survey data, followed by a rich qualitative investigation through interviews and observations. The integration of methods enabled both general pattern identification and contextual depth, allowing for a comprehensive understanding of leadership practices in trust-rich environments. This design also supports the generation of analytical generalisations, aligned with the logic of multi-case study research (Stake, 2013; Yin, 2018).
Specifically, the study employed a sequential mixed-methods design, moving from a quantitative (quant) to a qualitative (qual) phase. This design aligns with the two-dimensional mixed-methods sampling typology developed by Onwuegbuzie and Collins (2007: 294), who classify mixed-methods approaches according to both their timing and relative emphasis. Specifically, they distinguish between concurrent designs, where quantitative and qualitative data are collected simultaneously, and sequential designs, in which one phase follows another. The typology further differentiates studies based on the priority or weighting assigned to each component, producing an eight-cell matrix. In their notation, ‘quan’ and ‘qual’ refer to quantitative and qualitative strands, respectively; the plus sign (+) indicates concurrency, while the arrow (→) denotes sequence. The use of uppercase or lowercase letters signals the relative emphasis of each strand. Following this framework, the present research adopted a sequential quan→QUAL design, in which the quantitative phase played a supportive role, primarily serving to identify and select the principals for the subsequent, in-depth qualitative case studies.
Research setting and context
This study was conducted in Cyprus, a small EU member state with a highly centralised education system administered by the Ministry of Education, Sport and Youth (MoESY). Public education is characterised by centrally mandated policies governing curricula, staffing, performance evaluation and resource allocation (Eurydice, 2019). The Ministry of Education, Sport and Youth (MoESY) controls core elements such as staffing assignments, curriculum design and school evaluation protocols, leaving principals limited authority over personnel selection, professional development budgets and pedagogical innovation. Staffing decisions are made through annual rotations and seniority-based placements, while curriculum and assessment frameworks are nationally prescribed. Despite these constraints, principals in Cyprus demonstrated the ability to create discretionary spaces by locally negotiating zones of professional autonomy and informal mentoring (Karamanidou, 2025) within the formal system (Brauckmann and Schwarz, 2014). These could be achieved through strategies such as flexible internal role assignments, voluntary teacher teams, collaborative planning sessions beyond mandated hours, open communication and mentorship that extend beyond technical support to include modelling of leadership behaviours and fostering critical reflection (Fletcher and Mullen, 2012). Such practices allow leaders to reconcile top-down policy expectations with bottom-up trust-building and pedagogical improvement.
Although school leaders are formally held accountable for school performance and improvement, their autonomy is structurally constrained, creating conditions that heighten the salience of relational leadership capacities, such as trust-building and the adaptive integration of leadership styles (Brauckmann and Schwarz, 2014; Pashiardis and Savvides, 2014). In centralised systems, the demands of bureaucratic compliance can sit in tension with collaborative leadership practices; Cypriot evidence shows successful leaders work within these constraints to sustain teacher collaboration and relational credibility (Pashiardis et al., 2011). Cyprus-based scholarship further illuminates how leadership identities among primary teachers are shaped through everyday instructional and organisational practices, with distributed opportunities enabling innovation and teacher empowerment (Angelides, 2012; Karamanidou, 2025). At the same time, empirical work in Cyprus specifies the practices through which principals actually build trust, e.g. fairness, consistency, professional competence, confidentiality and tangible support, linking these behaviours to strong faculty trust in primary schools (Keravnos and Symeou, 2024). During crisis conditions (e.g. COVID-19), Cypriot studies also demonstrate how transformational behaviours (e.g. articulating a vision, providing individualised support) helped leaders maintain staff confidence under uncertainty (Kafa and Pashiardis, 2020; Menon, 2025). Together, these perspectives frame Cyprus as a setting where leadership is enacted within firm bureaucratic boundaries yet decisively mediated by relational and cultural dynamics that underpin school improvement.
Quantitative phase
The initial sampling frame included 180 public primary schools with ten or more full-time teachers, selected from the national school directory provided by the Ministry of Education, Sport and Youth (MoESY). Schools were invited through formal letters addressed to School leaders, accompanied by a detailed information sheet and consent documentation. A total of 90 schools, fulfilling the criterion of ten or more teachers (50%), agreed to participate, a rate considered robust for organisational-level research. Within these schools, teachers completed the Omnibus Trust Scale (Hoy and Tschannen-Moran, 2003), a validated, open-access instrument measuring five dimensions of faculty trust in schools: benevolence, reliability, competence, honesty and openness. An additional criterion was then introduced: the response rate per school was to be at least 75%. Of the 90 schools, 85 fulfilled the second criterion and were administered the Omnibus Trust Scale. The instrument was administered to 1320 teachers from 85 public primary schools in Cyprus. Responses were collected anonymously and analysed at the school level, consistent with the developers’ intention to measure trust as a collective property of the school.
Translation, reliability and aggregation procedures
All items were rated on a six-point Likert scale and translated into Greek using a rigorous forward–backward procedure to ensure semantic and cultural equivalence. Two bilingual educational researchers independently translated the instruments, and discrepancies were resolved by consensus. Internal consistency was high (overall α = .84; trust in principal α = .81; trust in colleagues α = .86; trust in clients α = .88), consistent with the reliabilities reported by Hoy and Tschannen-Moran (2003). Each school's mean scores across the three trust dimensions were converted into a standardised trust index using the scale authors’ scoring procedure (M = 500, SD = 100). Scores above 500 indicated higher-than-average trust, whereas scores below 500 indicated lower-than-average trust relative to the normative sample. The overall distribution in this study ranged from 372.3 to 689.1 (M = 504, SD = 61), showing substantial variation among schools.
To confirm the appropriateness of aggregating individual responses to the school level, both within- and between-school variance were examined. The intra-class correlations (ICC [1] = .18; ICC [2] = .79) indicated adequate within-school agreement and reliable between-school differentiation. A one-way ANOVA further confirmed significant school-level effects, F(84, 1235) = 4.91, p < .001, η² = .21, supporting the interpretation of trust as a shared organisational property rather than an individual perception. Missing data were minimal (3.2%) and were missing completely at random (Little's MCAR χ² = 47.8, df = 50, p = .58). Sensitivity analyses using listwise and pairwise deletion produced identical school-rank orders (Spearman's rs = .99), supporting the robustness of the aggregated data. Based on the standardised trust index, all 85 schools were ranked, and the five highest-trust schools were purposively selected for the qualitative phase to provide information-rich cases for examining leadership practices associated with sustaining faculty trust within a centralised education system (Table 1).
School code, aggregated trust indices, response rates and rank order.
Although the inclusion of a contrast or typical (non-high-trust) cases can enrich comparative interpretation, such a design extension was not implemented in this study for two main reasons. First, the study employed an explanatory sequential design, focusing on understanding the mechanisms that sustain high faculty trust rather than contrasting different trust levels. Second, the available resources and time frame for in-depth qualitative fieldwork (four full observation days and multiple interviews per site) necessitated a focused, multiple-case design limited to the five exemplar schools identified quantitatively. The analysis, however, did include internal variation across the five sites by capturing subtle contextual and leadership differences, which provided sufficient contrast to discern what was distinctive about high-trust environments without introducing a separate low-trust case.
Qualitative phase
To explore how leadership styles manifest in high-trust environments, the second phase employed a multiple-case study design (Yin, 2018), focusing on the five top-ranked schools. Case studies allowed for the exploration of leadership behaviour in its natural context, revealing both consistent patterns and context-specific variations. This phase aimed not only to describe leadership practices but also to identify the mechanisms that sustained trust.
Data collection
Two qualitative methods were used; semi-structured interviews and non-participant observations. A total of 45 participants were involved; five School leaders and 40 teachers (eight from each school). Teachers were selected through purposive sampling based on their availability, years of service and willingness to participate. Each principal and teacher was interviewed individually in quiet, private settings on school premises. Interviews lasted between 40 and 50 minutes, following a pilot-tested interview protocol consisting of ten open-ended questions. These questions probed leadership behaviours, perceptions of trust and examples of school-level decision-making and relational dynamics. The pilot ensured conceptual clarity and refined the sequence of prompts to enhance clarity.
Each school was also observed over four full working days, focusing on staff meetings, classroom walkthroughs, informal conversations and leadership–staff interactions. A theory-informed observational coding schema was developed based on core elements of TL (e.g. inspiring shared vision, individualised support), IL (e.g. focus on instructional quality, feedback practices) and DL (e.g. shared decision-making, teacher leadership). Observational data were recorded in structured field notes and subsequently triangulated with interview transcripts to enhance internal validity and minimise participant bias (Merriam and Tisdell, 2016).
Ethical considerations
Ethical clearance and permission to conduct the research were obtained from the Cyprus Pedagogical Institute, and the study complied with the guidelines of the British Educational Research Association (BERA, 2018). Informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to data collection (Roulston and Choi, 2018). Participants were informed of their right to withdraw at any time. All identifying information was anonymised, and digital files were stored in encrypted, password-protected drives.
The researchers’ positionality was explicitly acknowledged throughout the research process. As educators with prior professional experience in Cypriot schools, the researchers were familiar with the institutional culture and communication norms within these schools. This insider knowledge facilitated access, rapport and contextual understanding but also required deliberate strategies to mitigate potential power dynamics and interpretive bias. Reflexive journaling was maintained to record assumptions, emerging interpretations and researcher reactions during fieldwork and analysis.
To reduce social desirability bias, multiple steps were taken: (a) interviews were conducted in settings chosen by participants to promote comfort and openness; (b) assurances were given that responses would not be shared with school authorities or inspectors; (c) the interviewer adopted a non-evaluative stance and used neutral prompts to avoid value-laden framing and (d) triangulation across interviews and observations was used to validate self-reported perceptions. These measures strengthened the credibility and trustworthiness of the findings while maintaining an ethically respectful and reflexive stance towards participants.
Data analysis
Interview transcripts and observation notes were analysed using grounded theory procedures (Charmaz and Belgrave, 2012; Corbin and Strauss, 2014; Makri and Neely, 2021). We employed the Constant Comparative Method throughout open and axial coding to surface recurring patterns, refine categories and enable cross-case comparison (Kolb, 2012). Two researchers coded independently and then engaged in negotiated consensus sessions to resolve discrepancies and iteratively refine the codebook, thereby enhancing transparency and consistency in category application. Themes were first generated inductively from the empirical record and then iteratively aligned with the study's purpose, explicitly examining how TL, IL and DL intersect with faculty trust. This deductive movement between data and theory revealed composite leadership behaviours, blended routines that did not map cleanly onto a single style but reflected hybrid, context-responsive practice (e.g. Marks and Printy, 2003; Spillane et al., 2001). In parallel, we integrated qualitative leadership evidence (interviews, observations, incident maps) to support convergent validation and strengthen pattern confirmation across cases, consistent with mixed-methods integration standards (Creswell and Plano Clark, 2018).
To classify leadership practices into TL, IL and DL categories, we used a coding framework derived from established theoretical definitions (Bass, 1985; Hallinger and Murphy, 1985; Spillane et al., 2001). For example, TL codes captured articulating a shared vision, modelling moral purpose, and fostering professional growth; IL codes captured classroom observations, feedback cycles and facilitating teacher learning; DL codes captured delegated authority, collaborative decision-making and teacher-led initiatives. Segments exhibiting overlapping criteria across categories were coded as hybrid (multi-model) practices. This framework ensured consistent interpretation, addressed systematic overlaps among styles, and made the integration of leadership behaviours analytically explicit rather than incidental. A detailed summary of the coding framework, inclusion and exclusion criteria and exemplar quotations for each leadership category is provided in Appendix A.
Trustworthiness and rigour
We enhanced credibility through a sequential, criterion-based design: quantitative trust scores were first used to identify the five schools with the highest trust, which then informed targeted qualitative follow-up (Teddlie and Yu, 2007; Yin, 2018). Within each site, we triangulated semi-structured interviews and non-participant observations, presenting convergent evidence in case-ordered matrix displays (joint tables) that align interview excerpts with observed episodes by leadership code family (TL, IL, DL and hybrid). These joint displays made agreement and divergence transparent, supporting systematic cross-case comparison (Guetterman et al., 2015). Dependability was promoted via independent double-coding followed by negotiated consensus and iterative refinement of a versioned codebook, with decisions documented in memos and decision logs. This audit trail preserves a transparent chain of evidence from raw data to cross-case claims (Yin, 2018). To strengthen confirmability, interpretive claims were grounded in verbatim quotations and directly observed leadership routines. They were cross-checked against the quantitative trust profiles using side-by-side displays to test for pattern convergence and to probe exceptions (Guetterman et al., 2015). Finally, transferability was supported through thick description of the centralised policy environment, school contexts and analytic procedures (data sources, observation duration and cross-case logic), enabling readers to assess applicability to similar centralised systems (Lincoln and Guba, 1985).
Findings
This section presents the findings from five high-trust primary schools in Cyprus, based on semi-structured interviews with 40 teachers and five principals, alongside four full-day observations per school. The data were triangulated to ensure validity and results are organised thematically around the three guiding research questions. RQ1: What leadership styles are most frequently associated with school leaders in high-trust school environments?
The qualitative data revealed that TL was the most consistently observed leadership style across the five schools. Four of the five School leaders (1, 3, 4 and 5) exhibited TL behaviours, including articulating a compelling vision, fostering staff motivation and encouraging continuous professional growth. These School leaders regularly communicated shared goals and maintained high levels of staff morale. Interview and observational data (Table 2) confirmed that teachers were emotionally and professionally aligned with their school leaders. According to principal 1 for example it was imperative to remind them of their shared vision, as a fundamental aspect of his work: I remind them of our shared vision – why our work matters beyond daily routines. (Principal 1)
Triangulated evidence across data sources for leadership styles.
In School 3, the principal opened a staff meeting by connecting the school's improvement goals to broader educational values; a hallmark of TL. As teachers described: She listens to everyone and always reminds us of the big picture. You feel you are part of something important. (Teacher 20) It wasn’t just about the school plan – she showed us how our work connected to values like equity and lifelong learning. (Teacher 24)
IL traits were evident in schools 1, 2 and 4. School leaders in these schools engaged directly with teaching and learning, conducted classroom walk-through, supported IL development and cultivated data-informed discussions. Teachers noted that their leaders were ‘engaged with teaching’ and ‘interested in what really happens in class’. Observations supported these accounts. In School 2, the principal was seen providing targeted feedback during a peer-observation session. He also commented: I walk classrooms not to inspect, but to support good teaching where it happens. (Principal 2)
Teachers explained: He walks into classrooms not to control us, but to learn with us. You feel respected, not judged. (Teacher 10) Rather than telling us what to fix, he asked questions that made us reflect on our choices. (Teacher 13)
DL was identified in Schools 2, 3 and 5. It manifested through collaborative decision-making, DL responsibilities and teacher-led initiatives. Teachers often described feeling trusted, empowered and respected. As Principal 3 explained: I don’t want to be the only one making decisions. When teachers take ownership, they bring fresh ideas, and the whole school benefits. My role is to create the space for that to happen. (Principal 3)
This perception was echoed by teachers. One teacher noted: He trusts us to lead projects and values our input. That makes us feel part of the school's direction, not just following instructions. (Teacher 18)
Such an approach reflected a deliberate effort to flatten hierarchical boundaries, fostering a professional culture where teachers were recognised as co-leaders rather than passive implementer. In turn, this sense of shared responsibility appeared to enhance both staff morale and trust within the school. As principal 5 noted: We lead together here – teachers take initiative, and I trust their decisions. (Principal 5)
One teacher from school 5 also commented: We are treated as professionals. Decisions don’t come from the top; we discuss things as a team. (Teacher 38)
Table 2 synthesises the evidence from interviews and observations, highlighting how the three leadership styles manifested across the five schools. The triangulated data confirm that while TL was the most consistently evident, IL and DL practices also played significant roles in shaping school culture and faculty trust. The table illustrates the alignment between reported experiences and observed practices, strengthening the credibility of the findings RQ2: How do highly trusted school leaders combine elements of TL, IL and DL in practice?
The interviews and observational notes (Table 3) revealed that all five school leaders blended at least two of the three leadership styles in their practice. School leaders 1 and 4 demonstrated the most comprehensive integration, combining TL, IL and DL elements through inspirational motivation, targeted IL support and teacher-led committees. School leaders 2 and 3 aligned TL visioning with IL practices, while school leader 5 combined instructional guidance with distributed, teacher-led decision-making. Across cases, leadership appeared context-responsive, fluid and grounded in trust-based relationships.
Triangulated evidence for the integration of leadership styles.
For example, Principal 1 was observed inspiring staff during a planning meeting (TL), reviewing instructional goals collaboratively (IL) and enabling teacher-led committees to design professional learning sessions (DL). During the interview she underlined: We get together and discuss about our instructional goals. I prompt them to share their ideas. However, when needed I encourage and support my teachers to make their own small groups and share knowledge and good teaching practices. (Principal 1)
This multi-model leadership approach was reflected in teachers’ comments: He inspires us, checks on our teaching, and lets us take the lead when we have ideas. He also encourages small working groups to share and exchange ideas. (Teacher 5) He motivates us with his vision and encouragement, but also takes the time to listen and respond to our needs as educators. What makes the biggest difference is that he trusts us to lead our own committees, so we feel both supported and empowered to contribute to the school's direction. (Teacher 2)
Principal 4's leadership was similarly integrative. During a classroom observation debrief, she balanced direct pedagogical feedback with affirmations of teacher agency. She described her approach as ‘responsive to the staff's needs – sometimes I lead from the front, other times from behind’.
In Schools 2 and 3, the integration of TL and IL was evident through the alignment of vision with instructional goals. As one teacher explained, ‘Our targets are always linked back to the school's vision, so we know why the walkthroughs matter’. Observations confirmed that principals reinforced this alignment through structured goal-setting meetings and classroom visits. In School 5, the combination of IL and DL was reflected in shared pedagogy and teacher-led decisions. A teacher highlighted this by noting, ‘We plan lessons together and share strategies; it feels like collective ownership of teaching’.
Table 3 summarises the ways in which leadership styles were integrated across the five schools. The evidence illustrates that principals did not rely on a single leadership approach, but combined elements of TL, IL and DL in context-responsive ways. This integration was visible in both interview accounts and observed practices, highlighting the dynamic and adaptive nature of school leadership. RQ3: What contextual factors influence the adoption of integrated leadership practices?
Despite the constraints of Cyprus's centralised educational system where limited principal autonomy in staffing, budgeting and curriculum are present, leaders in high-trust schools adapted through relational and distributive strategies. They drew on TL to align staff with external mandates by leading and inspiring through example, IL to sustain a focus on teaching quality while navigating a rigid curriculum, and DL to empower teachers within their sphere of influence, balancing professional initiative with the system's norms and regulations. Teachers were acutely aware of these adaptive behaviours. As one teacher in School 4 remarked: We know she can’t change the system, but she gives us space to do things that matter. (Teacher 31)
Observations confirmed that school leaders leveraged trust to delegate and innovate. In School 5, for instance, the principal delegated coordination of an inclusive education initiative to two senior teachers, stating during a staff meeting: You know what our students need better than anyone. Lead this – I’ll support you however I can. (Principal 5)
School size also emerged as a contextual variable influencing the distribution of leadership. Smaller schools (e.g. Schools 3 and 5) fostered tight-knit cultures conducive to informal leadership sharing, whereas larger schools (e.g. Schools 1 and 2) relied on more formalised structures such as working groups and pedagogical teams. In both contexts, high-trust environments facilitated shared leadership and innovation, even within rigid administrative frameworks.
Table 4 summarises the key contextual factors that shaped how leadership was enacted across the five schools. The evidence shows that centralised governance, school size and relational capital influenced the extent to which principals could exercise autonomy, distribute leadership and adapt instructional practices. These contextual conditions framed the ways in which TL, IL and DL were integrated, reinforcing the importance of trust as a mediating factor.
Contextual factors and their influence on leadership practices.
In summary, the findings demonstrate that principals in high-trust Cypriot schools did not rely on a single leadership style. Instead, they consistently drew flexibly on TL, IL and DL, often blending elements to meet the needs of their schools. While TL was the most frequently observed, IL and DL practices were also evident and, in many cases, these styles were purposefully integrated. The adoption of these practices was shaped by contextual constraints most notably the centralised governance of the system, school size and the degree of relational trust between leaders and staff. Across cases, trust emerged as a critical condition that appeared to support principals in navigating structural limitations, fostering collaboration and sustaining professional motivation.
Discussion
The discussion interprets the study's findings in relation to the three guiding research questions: (a) the leadership styles associated with high-trust school environments, (b) the ways these styles are integrated in practice and (c) the contextual factors shaping their enactment within Cyprus's centralised education system. The results collectively demonstrate that faculty trust and leadership integration are mutually constitutive processes; each reinforcing the other in sustaining professional collaboration and school improvement. By showing how TL, IL and DL converge in context-responsive ways, the study both confirms and extends seminal works on leadership hybridity and trust (Bryk and Schneider, 2002; Day et al., 2016; Leithwood et al., 2020; Marks and Printy, 2003). It contributes to ongoing debates about how leadership can remain relational and adaptive under policy-driven constraint, illustrating that trust functions as the relational infrastructure that connects moral purpose, instructional quality and collective agency. The following sections discuss these findings, highlighting their theoretical and practical implications.
Leadership styles associated with trust in schools
The findings affirm that TL, IL and DL constitute the primary behavioural domains through which trust is cultivated and sustained in schools. Each style contributed distinct yet complementary mechanisms for building relational confidence, professional respect, and collective efficacy; core dimensions identified as the foundations of faculty trust (Bryk and Schneider, 2002; Louis et al., 2010).
TL has emerged as a crucial and impactful approach for fostering trust within educational settings. This leadership style is defined by vision-oriented initiatives and ethical practices that honour and affirm teachers’ professional dignity while promoting a shared moral purpose (Bass and Avolio, 1994; Mansor et al., 2021). In this framework, principals exhibited behaviours that reflect individualised consideration, offered personalised support and attented to the needs of their staff. They motivated their teams through strategies that enhance enthusiasm and commitment, while also provided intellectual stimulation that encourages innovation and critical thinking. Integrity is a cornerstone of their leadership, reinforcing trust and respect in their relationships. These practices cultivate a strong sense of interpersonal credibility and create a psychologically safe environment where teachers feel valued and empowered to express their ideas.
Such TL practices resonate with the trust-building principles identified by Sun et al. (2017), emphasising that genuine relational trust is built not on hierarchical authority but on authentic, consistent actions and interactions. In contrast, transactional leadership – characterised by a focus on compliance, strict adherence to rules and contingent rewards (Bass, 1985; Tourish, 2013) – is often perceived as obstructing open communication and discouraging professional risk-taking. This sharply contrasts with the engaging and supportive tenets of TL, which actively empower educators to thrive in their roles.
IL significantly enhanced professional trust within the educational environment by emphasising competence and providing strong support. Principals who actively engaged in teaching, the curriculum and mentoring not only showcased their instructional expertise but also strengthened teachers’ confidence in their abilities (Çoban et al., 2020; Hallinger et al., 2020). This visible involvement reflected a commitment to educational excellence, fostering an atmosphere in which teachers felt supported and respected.
Consistent with the findings of Robinson et al. (2008), this proactive participation reassured teachers that leadership decisions were grounded in a profound understanding of pedagogy rather than in a detached managerial approach. Consequently, instructional credibility became essential for building and maintaining trust among staff, signalling a collective dedication to upholding high professional standards and a shared focus on student learning.
DL further amplified trust by institutionalising participation and reciprocity (Nadeem, 2024; Tschannen-Moran and Gareis, 2017). Teachers in high-trust schools are meaningfully involved in decision-making and innovation, reducing hierarchical distance and fostering collective ownership of school goals (Zhang et al., 2021). Genuine distribution generates trust when leadership is enacted through interdependence rather than delegated tasks (Harris, 2013; Tian et al., 2016). The current findings echo Karamanidou's (2025) insight that DL is embedded in everyday professional interactions, not confined to formal structures mentioned as an especially salient pattern in relational cultures such as Cyprus.
Collectively, these findings reinforce that trust is not the by-product of any single leadership style but the relational outcome of how moral purpose, professional competence and shared agency are enacted together. Each style contributes a distinct channel – ethical credibility (TL), professional competence (IL) and participatory inclusion (DL) – through which faculty trust is cultivated and sustained.
Integration of leadership practices
The findings confirm that TL, IL and DL rarely function independently but interact dynamically according to situational demands, teacher needs and organisational priorities. Effective principals strategically blended these styles to create coherence between moral purpose, pedagogical focus and shared agency (Bellibaş et al., 2021; Bush, 2025; Marks and Printy, 2003). This integration was not additive but synergistic, consistent with Marks and Printy's (2003) and Hallinger and Heck's (2010) findings that combining TL's attention on motivation and inspiration with IL′s emphasis on learning and DL's focus on participation, sustains and enhances professional collaboration.
Gronn's (2010) concept of hybrid leadership and Leithwood and Azah's (2017) notion of layered leadership help explain this interplay: leaders balance hierarchical authority with distributed influence across school, district and system levels. In this study, trust was the mediating condition that enabled principals to exercise directive authority while maintaining collegial collaboration. Trust thus operated as the relational infrastructure through which hybrid leadership produced both coherence and adaptability (Harris, 2013; Halverson and Clifford, 2013). Complementary evidence from Liu et al. (2020) and Karacabey et al. (2022) reinforces that IL and DL jointly predict teacher learning and satisfaction through collective efficacy and trust. In Cyprus, this synergy was evident in leaders’ ability to invite teacher agency and shared accountability while maintaining instructional coherence. The results echo Day et al. (2016) and Bush and Glover (2014), who contend that leadership effectiveness depends on alignment between moral, technical and cultural dimensions. Here, trust serves as the mechanism enabling that alignment and sustaining professional community (Brauckmann and Schwarz, 2014).
Contextual factors shaping leadership
Leadership practices were profoundly shaped by Cyprus's centralised governance, where principals face restricted authority in staffing, budgeting and curriculum design (Brauckmann and Schwarz, 2014; Karamanidou, 2025). Despite these constraints, leaders cultivated trust and agency by focusing on relational influence rather than structural control; prioritising fairness, openness and support (Keravnos and Symeou, 2024; Tschannen-Moran and Gareis, 2017). The findings affirm Pashiardis and Kafa's (2022) argument that effective Cypriot principals mobilise shared values and collaboration to offset limited autonomy.
Trust thus functioned as both a moral asset and a strategic resource, enabling principals to navigate institutional rigidity while maintaining cohesion and morale (Louis and Murphy, 2017). Relational leadership traits – emotional intelligence, ethical transparency and empathy – were pivotal for sustaining this climate (Browning, 2014; Bryk and Schneider, 2002; Murphy and Louis, 2018). These align with Day et al. (2016) and Leithwood et al. (2020), who link emotionally literate leadership with sustained improvement and team cohesion. Effective leadership in such contexts also depended on creating ‘discretionary spaces’ within structural limits (Keddie, 2015). Principals expanded professional agency by flexibly interpreting policy, distributing decision-making and leveraging collective expertise to localise national mandates. These adaptive practices demonstrate how hybrid leadership can operate productively even in tightly regulated systems (Gronn, 2010). Notably, the capacity to foster trust and collaboration under constraint could offer transferable insights for both centralised and decentralised education systems internationally.
Implications
The findings of this study underscore that the integration of TL, IL and DL offers tangible benefits for school leaders operating in centralised systems. When enacted in combination, these styles enable principals to balance relational, instructional and participatory dimensions of leadership to create cohesive and trust-rich school cultures. TL practices help leaders articulate shared purpose and model ethical consistency; IL processes enhance credibility through attention to teaching and learning; and DL strategies empower teachers to assume responsibility for professional dialogue and school improvement. Together, these interwoven approaches strengthen collective efficacy, commitment and professional trust among staff.
For practising school leaders, the study demonstrates that trust can be deliberately cultivated through this integration. Leaders who inspire shared values, engage in authentic instructional conversations and distribute meaningful responsibilities foster environments where teachers feel respected, supported and professionally confident. Such conditions, in turn, reinforce collaboration and staff stability even under bureaucratic constraints.
For leadership preparation and policy design, the findings highlight the need to develop adaptive and relational competencies with emphasis on the ability to communicate openly, act with fairness and integrity and sustain shared decision-making structures. Leadership frameworks should recognise trust not merely as a personal trait but as a strategic organisational resource that enables school leaders to navigate centralised mandates while maintaining professional cohesion and motivation.
Researchers and leadership development institutions should further investigate context-responsive leadership models that transcend stylistic binaries and reflect the complex interplay between leadership behaviours, institutional constraints and trust. By cantering trust as both an ethical imperative and a strategic resource, educational systems can better equip leaders to sustain meaningful change and foster resilient school communities.
Suggestions for future research
This study focused on public primary schools in Cyprus and employed a qualitative multi-case design. Future research should explore how these dynamics operate in secondary education, where leadership roles and school structures differ. Comparative studies across centralised and decentralised systems could also illuminate how governance models influence leadership adaptation and trust. While this study focused on the integration of TL, IL and DL, future research could also examine how other emerging models, such as Entrepreneurial or Servant leadership, intersect with trust-building in schools. Such explorations would broaden understanding without losing the contextual focus adopted here. Finally, longitudinal research would be valuable for understanding how trust and leadership evolve over time and whether integrated practices lead to sustainable outcomes.
Limitations
This study focuses on five high-trust primary schools in Cyprus within a centralised education system, which may limit generalisation to other contexts, such as secondary or decentralised settings. As a cross-sectional study, it does not capture changes in trust or leadership practices over time. Additionally, relying on self-reported data may introduce a perception bias.
Conclusion
This study contributes to the growing body of research linking integrated leadership with faculty trust by demonstrating how principals in Cyprus combine TL, IL and DL approaches to lead effectively within a centralised education system. The findings confirm and extend seminal work on leadership hybridity (Day et al., 2016; Leithwood et al., 2020; Marks and Printy, 2003; Robinson et al., 2008) and trust (Bryk and Schneider, 2002; Hoy and Tschannen-Moran, 2003) by showing empirically that integration is not only conceptually coherent but also practically indispensable in contexts of limited autonomy. Trust emerged as both the connective tissue and the driving force of this integration fostered through enabling collaboration, professional learning and sustained improvement even under bureaucratic constraint.
For school leaders, the study underscores that trust is built through visible fairness, instructional credibility and shared decision-making that empowers teachers as partners in leadership (Ghamrawi, 2011). For policymakers and leadership developers, it highlights the need to prepare principals who can navigate policy demands through adaptive, relational and context-responsive practices. Ultimately, the study advances understanding of how integrated, trust-based leadership sustains professional cohesion and organisational resilience, offering a transferable model for leadership in both centralised and decentralised education systems.
Footnotes
Funding
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.
Declaration of conflicting interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.
Author biographies
Appendix A. Coding manual excerpt.
| Category | Definition | Inclusion criteria | Exclusion criteria | Exemplar quote |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Transformational (TL) | Leadership that motivates through shared vision, values and personal consideration. | Statements linking purpose, inspiration or recognition to collective goals. | General praise without leadership intent. | ‘I remind staff why our work matters; our vision for every child’. (Principal 1) |
| Instructional (IL) | Leadership focused on teaching, curriculum, assessment and feedback. | Classroom walkthroughs, feedback, curriculum discussions. | Administrative logistics unrelated to learning. | ‘I visit classes to observe strategies and discuss ways to improve literacy outcomes’. (Principal 2) |
| Distributed (DL) | Shared leadership where teachers hold genuine decision-making authority. | Evidence of delegation with responsibility and accountability. | Consultation without decision authority. | ‘Our literacy team designs the plan and implements it independently; I support their ideas’. (Principal 5) |
| Hybrid (TL + IL + DL) | Integrated practice combining multiple leadership logics within one event or structure. | Overlap of two or more categories in a single segment. | Sequential but unrelated actions. | ‘We co-created a vision, then teachers led inquiry cycles to bring it alive’. (Principal 4) |