Lagging student performance in the Sultanate of Oman has, in recent years, led the Ministry of Education to target teachers’ professional learning as a key strategic pillar in its efforts to reform the education system. While international evidence finds principal leadership can make a meaningful difference in teacher engagement in professional learning, this has yet to be studied in Arab societies. The current study collected data from 887 teachers in 78 Omani middle schools with the aim of understanding if and how their principals’ learning-centered leadership influences teacher agency, teacher trust and teacher professional learning. Factor analysis, structural equation modelling, and bootstrapping were used to explore both partial and full mediation models of these relationships. Results validated a partial mediation model in which learning-centered leadership had moderate direct and indirect effects on teacher professional learning. The validated model also highlights the important role that principals can play in creating a climate of trust where teachers believe that investing their time and effort in professional learning will be beneficial for themselves and their schools. The results from Oman are compared with findings from other Asian societies and implications discussed.
Al-BarwaniT (2011) Leadership for learning in the Middle East: The road travelled thus far. In: TownsendTMacBeathJ (eds) International Handbook of Leadership for Learning. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer, 103–112.
2.
Al-KiyumiAHammadW (2019) Instructional supervision in the sultanate of Oman: Shifting roles and practices in a stage of educational reform. International Journal of Leadership in Education22(2): 237–249.
3.
Al-MahdyYFHEmamMMHallingerP (2018) Assessing the contribution of principal instructional leadership and collective teacher efficacy to teacher commitment in Oman. Teaching and Teacher Education69: 191–201.
4.
Al-NajarN (2016) View of education development in Oman. International Journal of Academic Research in Education and Review4(1): 10–18.
5.
Al BalushiSGriffithsD (2013) The school education system in the sultanate of Oman. In: DonnGAl ManthriY (eds) Education in the Broader Middle East: Borrowing a Baroque Arsenal. Oxford: Symposium Books, 107–126.
6.
Al JabriMSilvennoinenHGriffithsD (2018) Teachers’ professional development in Oman: Challenges, efforts and solutions. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research17(5): 82–103.
7.
Al ShabibiASSilvennoinenH (2018) Challenges in education system affecting teacher professional development in Oman. Athens Journal of Education5(3): 261–282.
8.
AmzatIHAl-MahruqiSHTeslikhanM, et al. (2017) Engaging teachers in lifelong learning in Oman for knowledge growth and development: Government roles and higher institutions. In: AmzatIValdezN (eds) Teacher Empowerment Toward Professional Development and Practices. Singapore: Springer, 135–151.
9.
BarthRS (1990) Improving Schools from Within. San Francisco CA: Jossey-Bass.
10.
BarthRS (2002) The culture builder. Educational Leadership59(8): 6–11.
11.
BellibaşMSGümüşS (2021) The effect of learning-centered leadership and teacher trust on teacher professional learning: Evidence from a centralised education system. Professional Development in Education. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/19415257.2021.1879234.
12.
BiestaGPriestleyMRobinsonS (2015) The role of beliefs in teacher agency. Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice21: 624–640.
13.
BlankRKDe Las AlasN (2009) The Effects of Teacher Professional Development on Gains in Student Achievement: How Meta Analysis Provides Scientific Evidence Useful to Education Leaders. Washington DC: Council of Chief State School Officers.
14.
BrislinRW (1970) Back-translation for cross-cultural research. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology1(3): 185–216.
15.
BrowerHHSchoormanFDTanHH (2000) A model of relational leadership: The integration of trust and leader–member exchange. The Leadership Quarterly11(2): 227–250.
16.
BrykASchneiderB (2002) Trust in Schools: A Core Resource for Improvement. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
17.
ClarkeSO’DonoghueT (2017) Educational leadership and context: A rendering of an inseparable relationship. British Journal of Educational Studies65(2): 165–182.
18.
CohenJ (1992) A power primer. Psychological Bulletin112(1): 155.
19.
Darling-HammondLRichardsonN (2009) Research review/teacher learning: What matters. Educational Leadership66(5): 46–53.
20.
DimmockCAWalkerAD (2000) Future School Administration: Western and Asian Perspectives. Beijing: Chinese University Press.
21.
Drago-SeversonE (2007) Helping teachers learn: Principals as professional development leaders. Teachers College Record109(1): 70–125.
22.
EmirbayerMMischeA (1998) What is agency?American Journal of Sociology103(4): 962–1023.
23.
FischerCFishmanBDedeC, et al. (2018) Investigating relationships between school context teacher professional development teaching practices and student achievement in response to a nationwide science reform. Teaching and Teacher Education72: 107–121.
24.
FornellCLarckerDF (1981) Structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error: Algebra and statistics. Journal of Marketing Research18(3): 382–388.
FrostD (2006) The concept of ‘agency’ in leadership for learning. Leading & Managing12(2): 19–28.
27.
GeijselFPSleegersPJStoelRD, et al. (2009) The effect of teacher psychological and school organizational and leadership factors on teachers’ professional learning in Dutch schools. The Elementary School Journal109(4): 406–427.
28.
GeistJRHoyWK (2004) Cultivating a culture of trust: Enabling school structure, teacher professionalism, and academic press. Leading and Managing10(1): 1–17.
29.
GillJJohnsonPClarkM (2010) Research Methods for Managers. Thousand Oaks CA: Sage publications.
30.
GillespieNAMannL (2004) Transformational leadership and shared values: The building blocks of trustJournal of Managerial Psychology19(6): 588–607.
31.
HairJFBlackWCBabinBJ, et al. (2010) Multivariate Data Analysis, 7th ed.Englewood Cliffs NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.
32.
HallingerP (2011) Leadership for learning: lessons from 40 years of empirical research. Journal of Educational Administration49(2): 125–142.
33.
HallingerP (2014) Reviewing reviews of research in educational leadership: An empirical assessment. Educational Administration Quarterly50(4): 539–576.
34.
HallingerPBickmanLDavisK (1996) School context principal leadership and student achievement. Elementary School Journal96(5): 498–518.
35.
HallingerPKulophasD (2020) The evolving knowledge base on leadership and teacher professional learning: A bibliometric analysis of the literature, 1960– 2018. Professional Development in Education46(4): 521–540.
36.
HallingerPLiuSPiyamanP (2019) Does principal leadership make a difference in teacher professional learning? A comparative study China and Thailand. Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education49(3): 341–357.
37.
HallingerPMurphyJ (1985) Assessing the instructional management behavior of principals. The Elementary School Journal86: 217–248.
38.
HallingerPPiyamanPViseshsiriP (2017) Assessing the effects of learning-centered leadership on teacher professional learning in Thailand. Teaching and Teacher Education67: 464–476.
39.
HallingerPWangWC (2015) Assessing Leadership for Learning with the Principal Instructional Management Rating Scale. Dordrecht: Springer.
40.
HammadWHallingerP (2017) A systematic review of conceptual models and methods used in research on educational leadership and management in Arab societies. School Leadership and Management37(5): 434–456.
41.
HargreavesAGoodsonI (2006) Educational change over time? The sustainability and nonsustainability of three decades of secondary school change and continuity. Educational Administration Quarterly42(1): 3–41.
42.
HayesAF (2009) Beyond Baron and Kenny: Statistical mediation analysis in the new millennium. Communication Monographs76(4): 408–420.
43.
HordSM (2009) Professional learning communities: Educators work together toward a shared purpose. Journal of Staff Development30(1): 40–43.
44.
KaracabeyMFBellibaşMSAdamsD (2020) Principal leadership and teacher professional learning in Turkish schools: Examining the mediating effects of collective teacher efficacy and teacher trust. Educational Studies. Advance online publication. Doi : https://doi.org/10.1080/03055698.2020.1749835.
45.
KlineRB (2011) Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling, 3d edNew York NY: Guilford.
46.
KulophasDHallingerP (2020) Leadership that matters: Creating cultures of academic optimism that support teacher learning in Thailand. Journal of Educational Administration58(6): 605–627.
47.
KwakmanK (2003) Factors affecting teachers’ participation in professional learning activities. Teaching and Teacher Education19(2): 149–170.
48.
LeithwoodKHarrisAHopkinsD (2020) Seven strong claims about successful school leadership revisited. School Leadership & Management40(1): 5–22.
49.
LeithwoodKLouisKS (2011) Linking Leadership to Student Learning. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
50.
LeithwoodKPattenSJantziD (2010) Testing a conception of how school leadership influences student learning. Educational Administration Quarterly46(5): 671–706.
51.
LiebermanAPointer MaceDH (2008) Teacher learning: The key to educational reform. Journal of Teacher Education59(3): 226–234.
52.
LittleJW (2012) Professional community and professional development in the learning-centered school. In: KooyMVeenvK (eds) Teacher Learning That Matters: International Perspectives. London: Routledge, 22–46.
53.
LiuSHallingerP (2018) Principal instructional leadership, teacher self-efficacy, and teacher professional learning in China: Testing a mediated-effects model. Educational Administration Quarterly54(4): 501–528.
54.
LiuSHallingerP (2021) Unpacking the effects of culture on school leadership and teacher learning in China. Educational Management Administration and Leadership49(2): 214–233.
55.
LiuSHallingerPFengD (2016a) Learning-centered leadership and teacher learning in China: Does trust matter? Journal of Educational Administration54: 661–682.
56.
LiuSHallingerPFengD (2016b) Supporting the professional learning of teachers in China: Does principal leadership make a difference? Teaching and Teacher Education59: 79–91.
57.
LomosCHofmanRHBoskerRJ (2011) Professional communities and student achievement–a meta-analysis. School Effectiveness and School Improvement22(2): 121–148.
58.
LouisKS (2007) Changing the culture of schools: Professional community organizational learning and trustJournal of School Leadership16: 477–487.
59.
Louis KSMurphyJ (2017) Trust, caring and organizational learning: The leader's Role. Journal of Educational Administration55(1): 103–126.
60.
LuytenHBazoM (2019) Transformational leadership, professional learning communities, teacher learning and learner centred teaching practices; evidence on their interrelations in Mozambican primary education. Studies in Educational Evaluation60: 14–31.
61.
MacKinnonDP (2008) An Introduction to Statistical Mediation Analysis. New York: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
62.
MayerRCDavisJHSchoormanFD (1995) An integrative model of organizational trustAcademy of Management Review20(3): 709–734.
63.
McAllisterDJ (1995) Affect-and cognition-based trust as foundations for interpersonal cooperation in organizations. Academy of Management Journal38(1): 24–59.
64.
Ministry of Education (2004) National report on quality education in Oman. Available at: http://www.ibe.unesco.org/International/ICE47/English/Natreps/reports/oman_part_1.pdf (accessed 29 April 2010).
65.
Ministry of Education (2006) Educational Supervision in Oman. Muscat: Ministry of Education.
66.
Ministry of Education (2015) Guide for school professionals role specification. Available at: http://home.moe.gov.om/arabic/module.php?module1⁄4decisions. (accessed 15 March 2017).
67.
Ministry of Education (2016) Guide for the Specialised Centre for the Professional Training of Teachers. Muscat: Ministry of Education.
68.
Ministry of Education (2020) The Annual Educational Statistics Book (Issue 49): Educational Issues 464/2020. Muscat: Ministry of Education.
69.
Ministry of Education and New Zealand Association for Research in Education (2017) Evaluation of the Education System in Oman for 1–12. Muscat: Ministry of Education.
70.
Ministry of Education and World Bank (2012) Education in Oman: The drive for quality (Vol.2): Main report (English) Available at: http://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/280091468098656732/pdf/757190ESW0v20W0ector0Report0English.pdf. (accessed 29 April 2021).
71.
MurphyJElliottSNGoldringE, et al. (2006) Learning-centered Leadership: A Conceptual Foundation. Nashville TN: Learning Sciences Institute Vanderbilt University (NJ1).
72.
NunnallyJC (1975) Psychometric theory—25 years ago and now. Educational Researcher4(10): 7–21.
73.
ParkJHLeeIHCoocN (2019) The role of school-level mechanisms: How principal support, professional learning communities, collective responsibility, and group-level teacher expectations affect student achievement. Educational Administration Quarterly55(5): 742–780.
74.
PiyamanPHallingerPViseshsiriP (2017) Addressing the achievement gap: Exploring principal leadership and teacher professional learning in urban and rural primary schools in Thailand. Journal of Educational Administration55(6): 717–734.
75.
PodsakofPMMacKenzieSLeeJ, et al. (2003) Common method biases in behavioural research. MIS Quarterly30(1): 115–141.
76.
PreacherKJHayesAF (2008) Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behavior Research Methods40(3): 879–891.
77.
PrengerRPoortmanCLHandelzaltsA (2019) The effects of networked professional learning communities. Journal of Teacher Education70(5): 441–452.
78.
PriestleyMGandBRobinsonS (2015) Teacher agency: What is it and why does it matter? In: KneyberREversJ (eds) Flip the System: Changing Education from the Bottom Up. London: Routledge, 1–11.
79.
RobinsonMA (2018) Using multi-item psychometric scales for research and practice in human resource management. Human Resource Management57(3): 739–750.
80.
RobinsonVMLloydCARoweKJ (2008) The impact of leadership on student outcomes: An analysis of the differential effects of leadership types. Educational Administration Quarterly44(5): 635–674.
81.
RowanBCorrentiRMillerJ (2002) What large-scale survey research tells us about teacher effects on student achievement: Insights from the prospectus study of elementary schools. Consortium for Policy Research in Education Report 11–2002.
82.
SaphierJKingMD'AuriaJ (2006) 3 Strands form strong school leadership. The Learning Professional27(2): 51–57.
83.
SchreiberJBNoraAStageFK, et al. (2006) Reporting structural equation modeling and confirmatory factor analysis results: A review. The Journal of Educational Research99(6): 323–338.
84.
SleegersPThoonenEOortFJ, et al. (2014) Changing classroom practices: The role of school-wide capacity for sustainable improvement. Journal of Educational Administration52(5): 617–652.
85.
The Education Council (2018) The National Strategy for Education 2040. Muscat: Secretariat General of the Education Council.
86.
ThienLMLiuSYeeLQ, et al. (2021) Investigating a multiple mediated-effects model of instructional leadership and teacher professional learning in the Malaysian School Context: A partial least squares analysis. Educational Management Administration & Leadership. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/17411432211009892.
87.
ThoonenEESleegersPJOortFJ, et al. (2012) Building school-wide capacity for improvement: The role of leadership, school organizational conditions, and teacher factors. School Effectiveness and School Improvement23(4): 441–460.
88.
TimperleyH (2011) Realizing the Power of Professional Learning. London: McGraw-Hill Education.
89.
TIMSS Report (2015; 2019) International results in mathematics and sciences. Available at https://timssandpirls.bc.edu/timss2019/. (accessed 20 April 2021).
90.
Tschannen-MoranMHoyWK (2000) A multidisciplinary analysis of the nature meaning and measurement of trust.Review of Educational Research70(4): 547–593.
91.
VanblaereBDevosG (2018) The role of departmental leadership for professional learning communities. Educational Administration Quarterly54(1): 85–114.
92.
VescioVRossDAdamsA (2008) A review of research on the impact of professional learning communities on teaching practice and student learning. Teaching and Teacher Education24: 80–91.
WalkerAHallingerP (2016) School leadership for learning and change: Progress of an Asian agenda. In: JohnsonGDempsterN (eds) Leadership in Diverse Learning Contexts. The Netherlands: Springer Publisher, 145–171.
95.
WalkerAQianH (2022) Developing a model of instructional leadership in China. Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education 52(1):147–167.
96.
WestrickJMMiskeSJ (2009) Leadership for innovative Omani schools in the 21st century: Transforming principal identity through culturally contextualized training. In: WisemanAW (ed) Educational Leadership: Global Contexts and International Comparisons. Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing Limited.
97.
ZhengXYinHLiZ (2019) Exploring the relationships among instructional leadership professional learning communities and teacher self-efficacy in China. Educational Management Administration & Leadership47(6): 843–859.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
