Abstract
Some games provide both traditional board games and digital versions at the same time in the market. Why the rise of virtual games has not forced traditional physical board games to disappear? Do traditional physical games evoke different emotional reactions and interpersonal relationships? This article explored the subjects’ preferences toward traditional and digital versions of the same game and investigated social interaction while playing games. Based on Norman’s three emotional design levels—visceral, behavioral, and reflective levels—this study examined players’ satisfaction degree. This study also applied Positive and Negative Affect Schedule to measure subjects’ emotional reactions. Monopoly and Jenga games were selected as stimuli. A total of 77 subjects received tests of three different interface formats (physical, desktop, and tablet) and then filled out the questionnaire. The findings successfully evidenced the significant differences between digital and traditional board games. The statistical results indicated that satisfaction degrees of digital games declined in visceral, behavioral, and reflective levels. Traditional games not only evoked users’ stronger emotional reactions but also received higher preferences. Traditional games could improve interpersonal relationships as well.
Introduction
With the vigorous development of technology, modern gaming industries arise. New digital products are continuously launched and replaced the old ones. However, not all games follow this way. Nowadays, some popular and long-lasting games are sold in different versions of interface formats. Currently, their digital desktop and tablet computer games, as well as traditional physical board games, exist at the same time in the market. There should be some reasons that the rise of virtual games does not force traditional physical board games to disappear. Which game formats evoke stronger emotional responses and gain higher players’ satisfaction degree? Do physical games improve interpersonal relationships as some experts claim? Is it possible that following factors be the reasons: players’ satisfaction degree, emotional response, and social interaction?
Various studies confirmed that virtual games evoke a variety of emotional reactions.1,2 These reactions may affect players’ preferences and selections of games. In addition, Norman 3 proposed the concept of three emotional design levels: visceral, behavioral, and reflective levels. Norman’s theory focused mostly on the physical product design. Relatively little research applied his theory to study the interface issue. Based on Norman’s three design levels, this research tried to discover players’ satisfaction degrees toward traditional and digital games and analyzed the relationship between interface formats, personal background, and emotion.
According to above literature and experts’ opinions, we assume that there are significant differences between digital and traditional board games. The objective of this study is (1) to examine emotional satisfaction degree of visceral, behavioral, and reflective level in traditional and digital interface formats; (2) to study users’ different positive and negative affect toward traditional and digital games; (3) to explore the subjects’ operation preferences toward traditional and digital games; and (4) to investigate social interaction while playing games with different interface formats.
Literature review
Game influence
The core experience of entertainment is enjoyment. 4 Recent studies suggested that the enjoyment obtained in the digital game playing comes from (1) the joy of consciousness; 1 (2) anxiety, excitement, and relaxation; and (3) achievement, control, and self-efficacy. 2 The sense of accomplishment, achieved by the mission accomplished during the game, is the important source of happiness.
Computer games create enjoyment, excitement, and fantasy to meet players’ needs and thus players obtain emotional relief. Although players can obtain the positive experience by accomplishing the tasks in the digital game, they may suffer frustration from failure of challenging tasks. 5
Mood management theory, proposed by Zillmann, indicated the impact of media and users on mental cognition. This theory focused on the interaction between the media and users from the perspective of individual differences and mental recognition states.6,7 Mood management theory can be referred to game playing: players attempt to avoid negative frustration and search for a positive response from games.
Digital games are a ubiquitous part of almost all adolescents’ lives. 8 Players can immerse themselves in a game and feel crisis sense similar to the emotion in real life while facing the challenge of dangerous tasks. 9 At this moment, players must take the initiative to overcome difficulties. Conflicts and setbacks might occur while players try to communicate with team members; players need to improve their skills of communication and cooperate with other players to accomplish tasks.8,10 In this sense, gamers are problem-solving experts and collaborators. 11
Norman’s emotional design theory
Emotion refers to the brain’s reaction to external stimuli. Moreover, emotion is also a complex and conscious reaction in perception, thought, and feeling of an individual that could lead to value judgment.12,13 In Emotional Design, DA Norman 3 proposed the concept of three emotional design levels: (1) visceral level: appearance, (2) behavioral level: fun and utility of use, and (3) reflective level: self-image, personal satisfaction, and memories. Visceral design represents the human instinct for beauty and also the way for people to receive emotional messages. The visceral design is the impact generated by the first sight of a product, which is from the appearance feelings. Behavioral level is the practicality, functionality, effectiveness, and availability. Reflective level is associated with accumulated personal experience in life, including attributes of intimacy, self-image, sympathetic responses, and satisfaction. The reflective level also reflects users’ cognitive perspective, which varies from individual culture, experience, and education. Norman’s concept of three dimensions is suitable for studying the thinking of users and exploring various aspects, including visual stimulation, usability, and emotion.14,15
The Positive and Negative Affect Schedule
To measure subjects’ emotional reactions, this study applied Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS), proposed by Watson et al. 16 PANAS comprises two mood scales: one that measures positive affect and the other that measures negative affect. Used as a psychometric scale, the PANAS can show relations between positive and negative affect with personality stats and traits. 17 The reasons and advantages for using PANAS in this study are listed as follows: (1) PANAS is a brief and useful tool for the screening positive and negative affect in adolescents and young adult’s populations 18 and (2) the scales are shown to be internally consistent, largely uncorrelated, and stable across different time frames.18,19
The questions of PANAS include 10 items for measuring positive affect and 10 items for measuring negative affect. Participants are required to respond to a test using a 5-point scale that ranges from very slightly or not at all (1) to extremely (5).
Research methods
Monopoly and Jenga games were selected as stimuli. Both games provide traditional physical board game versions, as well as digital versions for desktop and tablet computers. Subjects received tests of three different interface formats (physical, desktop, and tablet) and then filled out the questionnaire.
Subjects
A total of 77 subjects were involved in this study. The subjects were randomly divided into two groups, consisting of 43 subjects for Monopoly (game) group and 34 subjects for Jenga (game) group. The subjects were students of the National United University, and the age range was from 18 to 25. From the total number of subjects, 30 were females (70%) and 13 were males (30%) in Monopoly (game) group and 17 were females (50%) and 17 were males (50%) in Jenga group. All subjects had experience with computer games.
Materials
Since this study compared three different interface formats of the same game, qualified stimuli should be well-known and long-lasting games; the traditional physical versions and digital versions (for desktop and tablet computer) are sold at the same time. After discussing with experts, Monopoly and Jenga games were selected. Monopoly, dating from 1903 and offering 43 languages, has sold 275 million packages in 111 countries. Jenga has sold 50 million packages as well. For the popularity, it will be easy to find experienced subjects without the language barrier. Table 1 illustrates three stimuli groups, namely, traditional board game, desktop computer game, and tablet PC game. Three to four subjects were distributed as a group and given directions to play games. All subjects experienced three different versions of one game for 15 min each. After 45 min of playing experiments, subjects were asked to fill out the questionnaires.
Stimuli groups of physical board game, digital desktop game, and tablet computer game.
Evaluation tools
This questionnaire consisted of subjects’ background, the satisfaction of three design levels, PANAS mood scale, preferences, and social interaction (see Table 2). The satisfaction of three design levels refers to emotional satisfaction and acceptance degree of Norman’s three design levels, including visceral, behavioral, and reflective levels. The question groups were (1) the visceral level, including appearance, material, color, texture, attraction, and deep impression; (2) the behavioral level, including easiness to learn, ease of use, pleasure, efficacy, and error rate; and (3) the reflective level, including resonance with life experience, friendliness, sense of satisfaction, understanding of the design idea, and improvement of self-image. Table 3 illustrates the detailed question groups of three design levels.
Contents of the questionnaire.
The question groups of three design levels (visceral, behavioral, and reflective).
PANAS mood scale was applied to measure subjects’ emotional reactions toward different interface formats. PANAS consists of 20 questions and applies 5-point Likert scale: 1 means strongly disagree and 5 represents highly agree. The question groups were (1) the positive emotions: interested, excited, proud, enthusiastic, alert, strong, attentive, active, inspired, and determined and (2) negative emotions: upset, distressed, guilty, nervous, hostile, irritable, ashamed, scared, jittery, and afraid. Preference indicates preference degrees of interface formats after subjects experienced game playing. Social interaction refers to the degree of sense of interpersonal relationships with friends while playing a game. The questions included friendship improvement, creation for common topics, and interaction with friends.
Analysis and results
The profile and characteristics of the subjects were investigated as follows: 73% of the subjects played digital games fewer than 2 h in a week, 22% between 2 and 4 h, and 5% more than 4 h. Totally, 42% of the subjects were acquainted with the touch screen controls of digital games, 31% were familiar with the traditional board games, and 39% of the subjects played these two games only for special occasions with friends and family.
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed and post hoc comparisons were made to determine the significance, using Scheffe’s procedure (p < 0.05). The experimental result is described as follows.
Satisfaction of three design levels
This study applied 5-point Likert scale to examine emotional satisfaction and acceptance degree of visceral, behavioral, and reflective levels. Figure 1 compares satisfaction degree among traditional, desktop, and tablet interface formats. The statistic result showed that all levels of satisfaction degrees were significantly different (p = 0.000) in these interface formats. In the comparison of the satisfaction degree of visceral level, the sequence was traditional games (4.39, standard deviation (SD) = 0.72) > desktop (3.18, SD = 1.00) > tablet (2.28, SD = 1.14). In the comparison of behavioral level: traditional (4.32, SD = 0.88) > desktop (3.10, SD = 1.19) > tablet (2.69, SD = 1.24). In the comparison of reflective level: traditional games (3.97, SD = 0.99) > desktop (2.97, SD = 1.11) > tablet (2.75, SD = 1.09).
Comparison of satisfaction in three design levels between three interface formats (units = points, 1–5).
Post hoc comparisons using Scheffe’s procedure showed that, in Norman’s three design levels, three interface formats reached significant differences (p < 0.05) (see Table 4). The visceral, behavioral, and reflective levels of each digital computer games decline significantly in satisfaction degrees when comparing with a traditional board game. Furthermore, players even show negative satisfaction toward tablet computer versions.
Statistic result of satisfaction degree in three design levels between three interface formats (units = points, 1–5).
SD: standard deviation.
p < 0.05.
In the comparison of three interfaces at the visceral level, physical board game significantly triggered the highest visceral preference in attraction, form, texture, color, and impression attributes (p < 0.05). Furthermore, players even showed negative satisfaction toward tablet computer versions in all attributes except impression item. This result indicated that tangible sense of traditional board game did increase the satisfaction and acceptance degree of visceral level.
In the comparison of three interfaces at the behavioral level, the physical game gained significantly higher satisfaction degree than the digital ones in comfort, ease of operation, easy understanding, error rate, and user demand accomplished attributes (p < 0.05). This result indicated that the sense of the touchable reality of traditional board game might help users understand the game without learning.
In the comparison of three interfaces at the reflective level, the physical game also gained significantly higher satisfaction degree than the digital ones in attributes of self-image enhancement, sympathetic responses, satisfaction, concept understanding, and intimacy (p < 0.05). Reflective level reflects accumulated personal life. Subjects’ familiarity with traditional board games might result in higher satisfaction in reflective level.
Users’ reactions of positive and negative emotions
This study applied PANAS to measure subjects’ emotional reactions toward different interface formats. Figure 2 illustrates the comparison of PANAS mood scale between three interface formats. The statistic result of ANOVA showed significant differences (p = 0.000) among three interface formats while comparing the positive and negative emotions. The sequence of positive affect is traditional game (4.06, SD = 1.08) > desktop (2.94, SD = 1.11) > tablet (2.64, SD = 1.14) and negative affect is traditional (2.55, SD = 1.42) > desktop (2.14, SD = 1.17) > tablet (2.13, SD = 1.21).
Comparison of PANAS mood scale between three interface formats (units = points, 1–5).
Post hoc comparisons using Scheffe’s procedure confirmed that traditional physical games evoked higher emotional reactions, both in positive and negative emotions (p < 0.05) (see Table 5). However, in negative emotion, no significant differences were found between desktop and tablet computer games.
Statistic result of PANAS between three interface formats (units = points, 1–5).
PANAS: Positive and Negative Affect Schedule; SD: standard deviation.
p < 0.05.
Regarding the detailed questions of PANAS, traditional physical games evoked highest positive emotions in the fun, excitement, sense of achievement, passion, strength, and dashing. Traditional physical games also evoked highest negative emotions in upset, distressed, guilty, nervous, hostile, irritable, ashamed, scared, jittery, and afraid.
Personal preferences and social interaction
The statistic results indicated that personal preferences were significantly different (p = 0.000) among physical, desktop, and tablet computer interface formats. Figure 3 illustrates the comparison of players’ preference for three interface formats. The sequence is traditional game (4.54, SD = 0.92) > desktop (2.65, SD = 1.28) > tablet (2.14, SD = 1.10).
Comparison of players’ preference for three interface formats (units = points, 1–5).
Post hoc comparisons using Scheffe’s procedure confirms that traditional physical games gain highest users’ preferences of interface formats after experiencing the games (p < 0.05) (see Table 6).
Statistic result of players’ preference for three interface formats (units = points, 1–5).
SD: standard deviation.
p < 0.05.
The statistic results show that social interaction was significantly different (p = 0.00) between three interface formats in the questions of improving friends’ relations, creating common topics, and interactive communication. Figure 4 illustrates the comparison of social interaction between three interface formats. The sequence is traditional game (4.57, SD = 0.68) > desktop (3.24, SD = 1.29) > tablet (3.01, SD = 1.36).
Comparison of social interaction for three interface formats (units = points, 1–5).
Post hoc comparisons using Scheffe’s procedure confirm that traditional physical games create the highest sense of social interaction with friends while playing the game (p < 0.05) (see Table 7).
Statistic result of social interaction for three interface formats (units = points, 1–5).
SD: standard deviation.
p < 0.05.
Chen and Schnabel 20 and Moghaddam et al. 21 mentioned that digital games have created new types of interaction and intuitive operation. The digital games should take advantages of the new technology such as multi-touch or movement gestures and so on. According to above results, physical games are superior to digital games in all aspects. These findings do not match with the literature in some parts. The reason might be the stimuli selection. The original physical versions of Monopoly and Jenga were successful. Launching their digital versions is only the revisions of the classic games, and it is not easy to make further breakthroughs.
Conclusion
In this study, subjects’ satisfaction degrees, emotional response, and social interaction toward different interface formats of the same game were compared. This study successfully evidenced the different significance between digital and traditional board games. The statistic results indicated that satisfaction degree of digital computer games declined in visceral, behavioral, and reflective levels when compared with traditional board games. The appearance of the traditional board game could impress people at the first sight and reduced errors in operation. Players can feel intimacy, vivid imagery, sympathetic responses, and satisfaction while playing the board game. These results explain the reasons why the rise of virtual games has not forced traditional physical board games to disappear.
The results also concluded that traditional games not only evoked users’ stronger emotional reactions, both positive and negative, but also received higher preferences. Regarding social interaction, traditional games could improve interpersonal relationships. New digital games could not replace the sense of social interaction created by traditional physical games.
However, the different interface formats of the same game were compared in this study, qualified stimuli should be popular games, and could provide physical and digital versions at the same time. Limited to this criteria, the new and innovative games released in recent years were excluded; stimuli selection might affect results. Recent literature suggested that the advantages of digital games are innovative interaction and intuitive operation.20,21 Some popular games, utilizing these benefits (e.g. intuitive gesture operation with multi-touch panel), deserve further investigations. Designing a new game should take full advantages of its distinguishing attributes of interface formats. These conclusions are hoped to provide useful design guidelines to designers and inspire them to utilize knowledge of users’ emotional reactions to design innovative interfaces for new games.
Footnotes
Academic Editor: Teen-Hang Meen
Declaration of conflicting interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: The authors thank the Ministry of Science and Technology of the Republic of China for the financial support under grant number MOST 104-2410-H-239-008.