Despite their ubiquity in primary care, psychological disorders often are overlooked as cues to heightened risk for metabolic syndrome (MetS), potentially leading to the suboptimal management of patients with these comorbid conditions. Accordingly, this review discusses psychological dysfunction as an under-appreciated MetS hazard and the strategic implications for cardiometabolic risk reduction in primary care.
Janiszewski P., Saunders T., Ross R.Lifestyle treatment of the metabolic syndrome . Am J Lifestyle Med. 2008;2:99-108.
2.
Terre L.Building a footbridge from research to practice in cardiovascular risk reduction . Am J Prev Med. 2007;1:103-109.
3.
Terre L.Strategic management of diabetes risk. Am J Prev Med . 2007;1:351-355.
4.
Bleakley A., Farrow R., Gould D., et al. Making sense of clinical reasoning: judgment and the evidence of the senses. Med Education. 2003;37:544-552.
5.
Hills N., Johnson S.Why are eligible thrombolysis candidates left untreated? Am J Prev Med. 2006;31:S210-S216.
6.
Kreyenbuhl J., Dickerson F., Medoff D., et al. Extent and management of cardiovascular risk factors in patients with type 2 diabetes and serious mental illness. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2006;194:404-410.
7.
Remington G.Schizophrenia, antipsychotics, and the metabolic syndrome: is there a silver lining?Am J Psychiatry.2006;163:1132-1134.
8.
Vreeland B.Bridging the gap between mental and physical health: a multidisciplinary approach . J Clin Psychiatry. 2007;68:26-33.
9.
Alexopoulos G., Katz I., Bruce M., et al. Remission in depressed geriatric primary care patients: a report from the PROSPECT study . Am J Psychiatry . 2005;165:718-724.
10.
Reiss-Brennan B., Briot P., Cannon W., et al. Mental health integration: rethinking practitioner roles in the treatment of depression: the specialist, primary care physicians, and the practice nurse. Ethn Dis.2006;16(2 Suppl 3):37-43.
11.
Rollman B., Belnap B., Reynolds C., et al. A contemporary protocol to assist primary care physicians in the treatment of panic and generalized anxiety disorder. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 2003;25:74-82.
12.
Terre L.The lifestyle factor. Am J Prev Med. 2007;1:181-184.
13.
Wittchen H. , Kessler R., Beesdo K., et al. Generalized anxiety and depression in primary care: prevalence, recognition, and management . J Clin Psychiatry. 2002;63(Suppl 8):24-34.
14.
Goethe J., Szarek B., Caley C., et al. Signs and symptoms associated with the metabolic syndrome in psychiatric inpatients receiving antipsychotics: a retrospective chart review . J Clin Psychiatry. 2007;68:22-28.
15.
Heiskanen T. , Niskanen L., Hintikka J., et al. Metabolic syndrome and depression: a cross-sectional analysis. J Clin Psychiatry . 2006;67:1422-1427.
16.
Jones L., Carney C.Increased risk for metabolic syndrome in persons seeking care for mental disorders . Ann Clin Psychiatry. 2006 ;18:149-155.
17.
Melamed S., Shirom A., Toker S., et al. Burnout and risk of cardiovascular disease: evidence, possible causal paths, and promising research directions. Psych Bull . 2006;132:327-353.
18.
Suvisaari J. , Saarni S., Perala J., et al. Metabolic syndrome among persons with schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders in a general population survey . J Clin Psychiatry. 2007;68:1045-1055.
19.
Fan A., Russell M., Dorn J., et al. Lifetime alcohol drinking pattern is related to the prevalence of metabolic syndrome. The Western New York Health Study (WNYHS). Eur J Epidemiol. 2006;21:129-138.
20.
Martens E., Smith O., Denollet J.Psychological symptom clusters, psychiatric comorbidity, and poor self-reported health status following myocardial infarction. Ann Behav Med . 2007;34:87-94.
21.
Brydon L., Magid K., Steptoe A.Platelets, coronary heart disease, and stress. Brain Behav Immun. 2006;20:113-119.
22.
Rosmond R.Role of stress in the pathogenesis of the metabolic syndrome. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2005:30:1-10.
23.
Sheps D., Soufer R., Freeland K.Psychological stress and myocardial ischemia: understanding the link and the implications. Psychosom Med. 2007:69:491-492.
24.
Chandola T. , Brunner E., Marmor M.Chronic stress at work and the metabolic syndrome: prospective study. BMJ. 2006;332:521-525.
25.
Kendall-Tackett K.Inflammation, cardiovascular disease, and metabolic syndrome as sequelae of violence against women. Trauma Violence Abuse. 2007;8:117-126.
26.
Kinnunen M. , Feldt T., Kinnunen U., et al. Association between long-term job strain and metabolic syndrome factor across sex and occupation. Journal of Individual Differences. 2006;27:151-161.
27.
Levy A., Maselko J., Bauer M., et al. Why do people with an anxiety disorder utilize more nonmental health care than those without? Health Psychol. 2007;26:545-553.
28.
Mausbach B. , Patterson T., Rabinowitz Y., et al. Depression and distress predict time to cardiovascular disease in dementia caregivers. Health Psychol . 2007;26:539-544.
29.
Tamashiro K. , Hegeman M., Sakai R.Chronic social stress in a changing dietary environment. Physiol Behav. 2006;89:536-542.
30.
Violanti J. , Fekedulegn D., Hartley T., et al. Police trauma and cardiovascular disease: association between PTSD symptoms and metabolic syndrome. Int J Emerg Ment Health. 2006;8:227-238.
31.
Wildes J., Marcus M., Fagiolini A.Obesity in patients with bipolar disorder: a bio-psychosocial-behavioral model . J Clin Psychiatry. 2006;67:904-915.
32.
Wulsin L., Singal B.Do depressive symptoms increase the risk for the onset of coronary disease? A systematic quantitative review. Psychosom Med. 2003;65:201-210.
33.
Malhotra S. , McElroy S.Medical management of obesity associated with mental disorders. J Clin Psychiatry. 2002;63:24-32.
34.
Newcomer J.Medical risk in patients with bipolar disorder and schizophrenia. J Clin Psychiatry.2006 ;67(suppl 9):25-30.
35.
Raeder M., Bjelland I., Vollset S., et al. Obesity, dyslipidemia, and diabetes with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors: the Hordaland Health Study. J Clin Psychiatry . 2006;67:1974-1982.
36.
Shirzadi A. , Ghaemi N.Side effects of atypical antipsychotics: extrapyramidal symptoms and the metabolic syndrome. Harv Rev Psychiatry. 2006;14:152-164.
37.
Yumru M., Savas H., Kurt E., et al. Atypical antipsychotics related metabolic syndrome in bipolar patients. J Affect Disord. 2007;98:247-252.
38.
Bonnet F., Irving K., Terra J., et al. Depressive symptoms are associated with unhealthy lifestyles in hypertensive patients with the metabolic syndrome. J Hypertens . 2005;23:611-617.
39.
McElroy S., Frye M., Suppes T., et al. Correlates of overweight and obesity in 644 patients with bipolar disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 2002;63:207-213.
40.
Taylor V., MacQueen G.Associations between bipolar disorder and metabolic syndrome: a review . J Clin Psychiatry. 2006;67:1034-1041.
41.
Van Gool C. , Kempen G., Penninx B., et al. Relationship between changes in depressive symptoms and unhealthy lifestyles in late middle aged and older persons: results from the Longitudinal Aging Study Amsterdam . Age Ageing. 2003;32:81-87.
42.
Chue P., Cheung R.Minimizing the risk of diabetes in patients with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Inter J Psychiatry Clin Pract. 2006 ;10:105-116.
43.
Meyer J., Loh C., Leckband S., et al. Prevalence of the metabolic syndrome in veterans with schizophrenia . J Psychiatr Pract. 2006;12:5-10.
44.
Newcomer J., Haupt D.The metabolic effects of antipsychotic medications. Can J Psychiatry. 2006;51:480-491.
45.
Saari K., Lindeman S., Viilo K., et al. A 4-fold risk of metabolic syndrome in patients with schizophrenia: the Northern Finland 1966 Birth Cohort Study. J Clin Psychiatry . 2005;66:559-563.
46.
Correll C., Frederickson A., Kane J., et al. Metabolic syndrome and the risk of coronary heart disease in 367 patients treated with second-generation antipsychotic drugs. J Clin Psychiatry. 2006;67:575-583.
47.
Correll C., Frederickson A., Kane J., et al. Does antipsychotic polypharmacy increase the risk for metabolic syndrome? Schizophr Res. 2007;89:91-100.
48.
de Leon J., Susce M., Johnson M., et al. A clinical study of the association of antipsychotics with hyperlipidemia . Schizophr Res. 2007;92:95-102.
Lamberti J. , Olson D., Crilly J., et al. Prevalence of the metabolic syndrome among patients receiving Clozapine. Amer J Psychiatry. 2006;163:1273-1276.
51.
Mackin P., Bishop D., Watkinson H., et al. Metabolic disease and cardiovascular risk in people treated with antipsychotics in the community. Br J Psychiatry. 2007;191:23-29.
52.
McIntyre R., Mancini D., Basile V.Mechanisms of antipsychotic-induced weight gain. J Clin Psychiatry . 2001;62:23-29.
53.
Birkenaes A. , Opjordsmoen S., Brunborg C., et al. The level of cardiovascular risk factors in bipolar disorder equals that of schizophrenia: a comparative study. J Clin Psychiatry. 2007;68:917-923.
54.
Rippe J., McInnis K., Melanson K.Physician involvement in the management of obesity as a primary medical condition . Obes Res.2001;9 Suppl 4:302S-311S.
55.
Alvarez-Jimenez M., Gonzalez-Blanch C., Vazquez-Barquerro J., et al. Attenuation of antipsychotic-induced weight gain with early behavioral intervention in drug-naïve first-episode psychosis patients: a randomized, controlled trial . J Clin Psychiatry. 2006;67:1253-1260.
56.
Aquila R.Management of weight gain in patients with schizophrenia. J Clin Psychiatry. 2002;63:33-36.
57.
Hoffman V., Ahl J., Meyers A., et al. Wellness intervention for patients with serious and persistent mental illness. J Clin Psychiatry. 2005;66:1576-1579.
58.
Kalarchian M., Marcus M., Levine M., et al. Behavioral treatment of obesity in patients taking antipsychotic medications. J Clin Psychiatry . 2005;66:1058-1063.
59.
Kwon J., Choi J., Bahk W., et al. Weight management program for treatment-emergent weight gain in Olanzapine-treated patients with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder: a 12-week, randomized, controlled clinical trial. J Clin Psychiatry2006;67:547-553.
60.
Ohlsen R., Peacock G., Smith S.Developing a service to monitor and improve physical health in people with serious mental illness. J Psychiatric Ment Health Nurs . 2005;12:614-619.
61.
O'Keefe C., Noordsy D., Liss T., et al. Reversal of antipsychotic-associated weight gain. J Clin Psychiatry.2003;64:907-912.
62.
Weber M., Wyne K.A cognitive/ behavioral group intervention for weight loss in patients treated with atypical antipsychotics. Schizophr Res. 2006;83:95-101.
