Abstract
The healthcare industry can greatly benefit from natural colorants as bioactive component integrated textiles. These textiles are perfect for use in healthcare because they are biocompatible, have antimicrobial characteristics and are sustainable. It is an exciting new development that might replace harmful synthetic dyes with safer and more practical options for healthcare textiles. The use of bio-colorants in textiles makes them both biocompatible and antimicrobial. By facilitating quicker healing and warding off infections, these textiles further add to improved healthcare outcomes. It also helps fund research into smart clothes that can track vital signs to better care for patients. Incorporating bio-colorants into textiles is the focus of this review paper which will also examine different sources of bio-colorants and fabrication methods. In addition, the review work will discuss obstacles and future possibilities for bio-colorant technology advancement in the healthcare and textile sectors. Developing smart textiles that monitor health parameters, improving wound dressings with biocompatible and healing properties and creating antimicrobial fabrics for surgical garments and hospital linens are all potential uses for bio-colorant integrated textiles. Patients can wear these textiles to protect themselves from harmful ultraviolet rays and these materials could also find use in environmentally friendly medical supplies.
Introduction
The transformation of textiles can be accomplished in a way that is both innovative and environmentally friendly by using bio-colorants that are obtained from natural sources such as plants, microbes, and algae.1,2 Utilizing these environmentally friendly pigments provides a more environmentally friendly alternative to the use of synthetic dyes while also imparting beneficial medicinal effects. Antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties are exhibited by textiles that have been infused with bio colorants.3–5 These properties make them suitable for use in medical applications such as wound dressings and protective clothing. This cutting-edge field promises to revolutionize industries by developing multifunctional materials that nourish wellness and sustainability. This is in response to the growing desire for items that are both beneficial to one’s health and environmentally friendly.6–10
Bio-colorant integrated textiles (BCIT) lead the way in sustainable textile production with the incorporation of natural dyes obtained from plants and microorganisms.9,11 Their pioneering methodology minimizes ecological footprint while providing a wide range of vivid color choices. BCIT prioritizes environmentally sustainable practices throughout its supply chain, with a particular focus on promoting biodegradability and non-toxicity. Through the utilization of bio-colorants, they promote biodiversity and provide consumers with a sustainable substitute for artificial dyes. They are dedicated to promoting sustainability by improving the longevity of textiles and reducing water usage in dyeing procedures. BCIT embodies an innovative approach in the pursuit of eco-friendly textile production. The integration of natural pigments into fabrics certainly holds great importance due to its numerous environmental and wellness advantages. 12 Relying on bio-colorants rather than synthetic alternatives promotes sustainability by reducing pollution from artificial compounds. Moreover, textiles derived from living sources exhibit protective properties against microbes, making them highly suitable for medical textiles such as bandages and hospital linens.13–15 Furthermore, their anti-inflammatory and antioxidant characteristics meaningfully aid skin health and shielding, rendering them optimal for healthcare apparel.16–20 These fabrics provide groundbreaking therapeutic remedies, potentially revolutionizing wearable medical technologies. The utilization of organic dyes also supports preserving conventional dyeing traditions and biodiversity. Fabrics incorporating bio-colorants represent a significant advancement in both eco-friendly fashion and healthcare innovation.21–24
The incorporation of bio-colorants into textiles has traditionally been centered on the principles of sustainability and eco-friendliness; nevertheless, the prospective applications of these bio-colorants in the fields of medicine and healthcare have not yet been thoroughly investigated.25–27 There are still gaps in research on the understanding of how bio colorants, which are well-known for their natural origins and the advantages they provide to the environment, might be utilized to improve the therapeutic characteristics of medical textiles. It is necessary to research the medicine and healthcare capabilities of bio-colorant integrated textiles to close this gap and realize the full potential of these textiles in healthcare settings.28–33 When these gaps are addressed, it may lead to the development of creative ways that combine environmentally responsible textile practices with improved medicinal functionality.
This review paper will delve into the various sources of bio colorants, examining natural dyes derived from plants, animals and microorganisms. It will explore the fabrication methods used to integrate these bio-colorants into textiles, comparing them with traditional synthetic dyes in terms of environmental impact, safety and efficacy. The challenges faced in the production and application of bio-colorant integrated textiles will be discussed alongside future prospects in this field. Additionally, this review work will provide a detailed analysis of the applications of these textiles in medicine and healthcare, highlighting their potential benefits and innovations.
Sources of bio colorants
Bio-colorants are coloring agents generated from natural sources. Synthetic dyes are produced by many chemical reactions involving petrochemical-based intermediates, resulting in substantial energy consumption and dangerous chemicals released into the environment.34,35 Natural dyes are widely used for coloring natural fibers like cotton, linen, wool, and silk, and to some extent, synthetic fibers such as nylon and polyester. However, challenges include shade reproducibility, lack of standardized application procedures, and poor durability of colors under water and light exposure. Achieving good color fastness to washing and light remains difficult. Examples of important natural dyes include indigo, madder, and turmeric.36,37 Bio colorant sources are illustrated in Figure 1.
Sources of bio colorants.
Plant-derived colorants
Historically, dyestuffs were mostly derived from plants. Approximately 500 plant species have been identified as potential dye suppliers. 38 These plants are not only interchangeable and sustainable, but also biodegradable. They also offer pharmacological and health benefits and can be found in plant components such as roots, stems, stalks, leaves, bark, berries, and seeds. 39
Indigo (Indigofera tinctoria)
Indigo dye has been utilized for over 4000 years, originating in ancient India, China, and Japan. It was highly prized in trade and often referred to as “blue gold.” The dye is extracted from the leaves of the plant through a fermentation process. Indigo dyeing involves a reduction process to convert indigo into a soluble form that can bind to the fabric. When the fabric is exposed to air, oxidation occurs, turning the dye back into its insoluble form, imparting the characteristic deep blue color. Indican is a colorless, water-soluble chemical that serves as the precursor of indigo. Indican hydrolyzes in water, releasing β-D-glucose and indoxyl. Indigotin was formed by oxidizing indoxyl.40,41 Traditional indigo production is relatively sustainable, using natural fermentation methods. In contrast, modern synthetic indigo production can be harmful due to the chemicals involved, highlighting the environmental benefits of traditional methods. 42
Madder (Rubia tinctorum)
Madder root has been used since ancient Egypt and in medieval Europe to produce a range of red, pink, and orange hues. It is notably used in Turkish carpets and French tapestries. The dye is derived from the roots of the plant, which has coloring materials named alizarin, that belongs to the anthraquinone group. The plant’s root includes many polyphenolic chemicals, including 1,3-dihydroxyanthraquinone, 1,4-dihydroxyanthraquinone, 1,2,4-trihydroxyanthraquinone, and 1,2-dihydroxyanthraquinone. 43 The roots are dried, powdered, and boiled to extract the dye. Mordants such as alum, iron, and tin are used to fix the dye on the fabric and to alter the final color. Madder cultivation is sustainable and the dyeing process is eco-friendly when traditional methods are used. Additionally, the plant enriches the soil with nitrogen.44,45
Turmeric (Curcuma longa)
Turmeric has been used in India for centuries, not only in textiles but also in food and traditional medicine. The dye is obtained from the rhizomes of the plant. Curcuminoids are phenolic chemicals that are abundant in turmeric. Turmeric contains a pigment known as curcumin, which gives it its color. The keto-enol version of the diaryl heptanoid is curcumin. For extraction, Rhizomes are dried, ground into powder, and then boiled for yellow dye. It is commonly used with a mordant such as alum to improve color fastness. Turmeric cultivation is relatively low-impact and sustainable. The dyeing process is safe, non-toxic, and environmentally friendly.46,47
Henna (Lawsonia inermis)
Henna has been used for over 5000 years in Middle Eastern, North African, and South Asian cultures for body art and hair dyeing. dye is derived from the leaves, which are dried and ground into a powder. Henna powder is mixed with an acidic liquid (like lemon juice) to release the dye. It is applied as a paste to the fabric or skin. Henna leaves mostly contain hennotannic acid, which is a pigment that appears as a red-orange color. Hennotannic acid is a chemical compound with the molecular formula 2-hydroxy-1,4-naphthoquinone. The coloring compounds exhibit a high affinity for protein fibers. Henna cultivation and processing are sustainable and eco-friendly. The dyeing process is safe, non-toxic, and biodegradable. 48
Weld (Reseda luteola)
Weld has been known since ancient times in Europe and is valued for producing bright yellow dyes. The dye is extracted from the whole plant, including leaves, stems, and flowers. The plant material is boiled to extract the dye and is often used with alum mordant to achieve a bright yellow hue. Weld cultivation is straightforward and sustainable. The dyeing process is non-toxic and safe for the environment.
Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius)
Safflower has been used in ancient Egypt, China, and Japan for dyeing textiles and as a food coloring. The dye is obtained from the petals of the flower. Petals are dried and soaked in water to extract the yellow dye, which can be further processed to obtain red dye. Safflower dye requires specific pH conditions to achieve the desired color. 49 Safflower is rich in a naturally occurring color known as carthamine. Carthamine is synthesized by the combination of chalcone (2,4,6,4-tetrahydroxy chalcone) with two glucose molecules, resulting in the production of safflor A and safflor B. 50 Safflower cultivation is generally sustainable and requires minimal chemical inputs. The dyeing process is non-toxic and environmentally friendly.
Pomegranate (Punica granatum)
Pomegranate has been used in ancient Persia and India for dyeing textiles. The dye is extracted from the rind of the fruit. Rinds are dried, powdered, and boiled to release the yellow dye. It is often used with alum or iron mordants to achieve different shades. The coloring molecule in pomegranate rind is flavogallol which is called granatonine. 51 It exists in alkaloid form (N-methyl granatonine). 52 The pomegranate rind is rich in tannin content; therefore, it is also used as tanning material. Pomegranate cultivation is sustainable and the rind is often a by-product of juice production. The dyeing process is safe and non-toxic. 53
Onion skins (Allium cepa)
Onion skins are a common household dye source, used traditionally in various cultures. The dye is obtained from the outer skins of onions. Skins are boiled to extract the dye, which produces a range of colors from yellow to brown. It is used with mordants to achieve better color fastness. It contains coloring pigments called pelargonidin (5,5,7,4 tetrahydroxy antocyanidol). Using onion skins as a dye source is an excellent example of waste utilization. The process is sustainable, non-toxic, and environmentally friendly. 54
Walnut (Juglans regia)
Walnut husks have been used for centuries in Europe and North America to produce a rich brown dye. The dye is derived from the husks of the walnut fruit. Husks are dried, crushed, and soaked in water to release the dye. It is often used with a mordant to improve color fastness and achieve deeper hues. Walnut husk dyeing is sustainable and makes use of a by-product that might otherwise be discarded. The process is non-toxic and environmentally friendly. 55
Logwood (Haematoxylum campechianum)
Logwood has been used since the 16th century for producing a variety of colors, including purple, blue, and black. It was particularly valued in Europe for dyeing textiles and in ink production. The dye is obtained from the heartwood of the tree. The wood is chipped, boiled, and the resulting extract is used as a dye. Logwood dye can produce different shades depending on the mordants used and the pH of the dye bath. 56 The logwood contains hematoxylin, which undergoes oxidation to become hematein as coloring matter. Logwood cultivation and processing are sustainable when the wood is harvested responsibly. The dyeing process is safe and non-toxic, making it an environmentally friendly option. 57
Saffron (Crocus sativus)
Saffron, derived from the Crocus sativus flower, has been used as a textile dye for thousands of years, dating back to ancient Persia and continuing through ancient Greek and Roman cultures. 58 The dye is removed from the flower stigma, which is then boiled in water to extract the hue. It gives the cloth a vivid yellow color. Wool, silk, and cotton may be colored using saffron. Alum mordant gives an orange-yellow tint known as saffron yellow. This is also used for food coloring. Saffron is a perennial plant from the Iridaceae family. The aqueous extract of saffron flowers contains 12% colorant. 59 Saffron includes phenolic chemicals, flavonoids, and anthocyanins. Anthocyanidins (pelargonidin) are responsible for the color of saffron petals. 60
Algal pigments
Algae, particularly microalgae, can produce pigments such as chlorophyll, carotenoids, and phycobiliproteins. Spirulina species produce phycocyanin, a blue pigment, while Dunaliella salina is known for its production of beta-carotene, an orange pigment. These pigments can be harvested from algal cultures and applied to textiles. Algal pigments are particularly appealing due to their biodegradability and non-toxicity. 61
Insect-derived colorants
Insect-derived colorants have been integral to textile dyeing for centuries, valued for their vibrant hues and natural origins. These dyes are extracted from specific insects and have historical significance across various cultures and regions.
Cochineal (Dactylopius coccus)
Cochineal dye, derived from the cochineal insect, has been used since the Aztec and Maya civilizations in Central and South America. Following the Spanish conquest in the 16th century, it became a highly valued commodity in Europe for producing vibrant red, crimson, and purple hues. The dye is extracted from female insects that feed on prickly pear cacti (Opuntia species). 62 These insects are harvested, dried, and ground into powder to produce carminic acid, which, when mixed with a mordant like alum, binds the dye to textile fibers. The resulting color varies with the mordant and pH levels, offering shades from bright scarlet to deep purple. Cochineal dye production is sustainable and eco-friendly, requiring minimal water, fertilizers, or pesticides. 63
Kermes (Kermes vermilio)
Kermes dye, derived from the kermes insect, has been used since ancient times, particularly in the Mediterranean region. It was highly valued by the Romans and later in medieval Europe for producing a rich crimson color. 64 The dye is obtained from female kermes insects, which are collected from oak trees. The insects are dried and ground to extract kermesic acid, the dye’s primary coloring agent. Similar to cochineal, kermes dye requires a mordant, typically alum, to fix the color to textiles. Kermes dyeing is a labor-intensive process but yields a bright and long-lasting red color. Historically, it was an expensive and prestigious dye, often used for royal garments and ecclesiastical vestments. 65
Lac (Kerria lacca)
Lac dye is extracted from the resinous secretion of the lac insect, native to India and Southeast Asia. The resin, known as shellac, is harvested from host trees, such as fig and acacia, and processed to produce both lac dye and shellac used in varnishes and coatings. 66 The dye itself is obtained by washing the crushed resin in hot water, which removes the soluble dye components. Lac dye may be made by extracting stick lac (shellac) with water and sodium carbonate solution, then precipitating with lime. Lac dye produces a range of colors from red to purple, depending on the mordant used. Lac dye comprises laccaic acids A and B, which are responsible for the dye’s hue. 67 This dye was historically important in textile dyeing in India and Southeast Asia and was also exported to Europe. Lac dyeing is sustainable as it utilizes a by-product of shellac production, although careful management of lac insect populations and their host trees is necessary to prevent ecological disruption. 68 Figures 2 and 3 shows different bio active components chemical structure.
(a) Natural indigo molecular structure, (b) Alizarin and purpurin molecular structure, (c) 1,4-dihydroxyanthraquinone and 1,8-dihydroxyanthaquinone, (d) Curcumin (diarylheptanoid) molecular structure, (e) Lawsone (2-hydroxyl-1,4-naphthoquinone) molecular structure, (f) Carthamine molecular structure. 69
(a) Granatonine molecular structure, (b) Pelargonidin (5,5,7,4 tetrahydroxy antocyanidol) molecular structure (c) Hematoxylin and Brazilin molecular structure, (d) Pelargonidin (anthocyanidin) purple and Kaempferol (flavonol) yellow molecular structure, (e) Chemical structure of laccaic acids. 69
Microbial-derived colorants
Microbial-derived colorants are emerging as a sustainable and eco-friendly alternative to synthetic dyes in the textile industry. These colorants are produced by microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, and algae, which can produce a wide range of pigments through their metabolic processes. The interest in microbial colorants is driven by their renewable nature, lower environmental impact, and potential for creating unique and vibrant colors.
Bacterial pigments
Various bacteria are known to produce pigments that can be used as textile dyes. For example, Chromobacterium violaceum produces violacein, a violet pigment, while Janthinobacterium lividum produces a similar pigment with antimicrobial properties. Serratia marcescens is known for producing prodigiosin, a red pigment.70,71 These pigments can be extracted from bacterial cultures and applied to textiles using standard dyeing techniques. The production of bacterial pigments typically involves growing the bacteria in nutrient-rich media, followed by pigment extraction using solvents.72,73
Fungal pigments
Fungi are another prolific source of natural colorants. For instance, Monascus species produce a range of pigments from yellow to red, commonly known as Monascus pigments. 74 These are traditionally used in Asian food products but have potential applications in textile dyeing. Similarly, Aspergillus niger produces pigments like ochre and black, which can be extracted and used for dyeing fabrics. The extraction process involves culturing the fungi, followed by pigment isolation through filtration and solvent extraction. 75
Marine-derived colorants
Marine-derived colorants from algae, mollusks, and crustaceans offer sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives to synthetic dyes. These colorants are valued for their unique hues, lower environmental impact, and potential health benefits.
Algal pigments
Marine algae are rich in pigments like fucoxanthin from brown algae, phycocyanin and phycoerythrin from red algae, and chlorophylls and carotenoids from green algae. These pigments are biodegradable, non-toxic, and can be extracted using solvent techniques and applied to textiles. 76
Mollusk-derived dyes
Tyrian purple, derived from murex snails, was historically prized for its vibrant purple color and association with royalty. The complex extraction process involves harvesting snails and exposing their secretion to sunlight. While its historical use was significant, Tyrian purple is rarely used today due to environmental and labor concerns. 77
Crustacean shell wastes
Crustacean shells, like those from shrimp and crabs, contain astaxanthin, a carotenoid used for pink to red coloration in textiles. This method utilizes seafood waste, offering a sustainable dyeing solution through solvent extraction and conventional dyeing methods. 78
Fruit and vegetable-based colorants
Fruit and vegetable-based colorants have been used for centuries to dye textiles, offering a wide range of natural hues derived from various plant sources. These natural dyes are valued for their eco-friendly properties and sustainable production methods.
Granatonine
Granatonine, the rind of pomegranate fruit waste is used to make natural color. Pomegranate fruit is high in natural tannins. The anar peel yields a yellow-colored dye. This natural dye is used for coloring wool, silk, and cotton fibers. 79
Carotenoids
Carotenoids, sourced from carrots, tomatoes, and marigolds, yield yellow to orange shades. These fat-soluble pigments are known for their stability and bright colors, which can be efficiently transferred to textiles using appropriate mordants. 80
Chlorophyll
Chlorophyll, extracted from leafy greens like spinach and kale, imparts green dyes. Although chlorophyll is less stable and prone to fading under light, advancements in dyeing techniques and mordant use have improved its application in textiles. 81
Betalains
Other notable examples include betalains from beets, which produce red to violet colors, and tannins from various fruits and nuts, providing brown and black shades. The use of these natural dyes not only reduces the dependency on petroleum-based synthetic dyes but also lowers water pollution due to the absence of toxic effluents. Furthermore, the renewable nature of these resources supports a circular economy in textile production. 82
Mineral and clay-based colorants
Mineral and clay-based colorants have been used for centuries to dye textiles, providing a range of natural, earthy hues. These natural dyes are valued for their rich colors, durability, and eco-friendly properties.
Ochre
Ochre, a naturally occurring pigment rich in iron oxide, has been utilized as a colorant for thousands of years. This mineral’s historical significance is evident in its use in Paleolithic era, and later in Egyptian, Persian, Greek, and Roman art, up to the Byzantine, Medieval, and modern period. Ochre’s application extended beyond art to textile dyeing, where its earthy hues were prized for their natural beauty and durability. The iron oxide content in ochre produces a range of colors, including vibrant reds, warm yellows, and deep browns, making it a versatile dye for various cultural and artistic purposes. Its widespread use across different continents underscores its importance in human history and its enduring legacy in traditional and modern dyeing practices. 83
Malachite
Malachite, a copper carbonate hydroxide mineral, is renowned for its vivid green color, which has captivated civilizations for millennia. In ancient Egypt, malachite was highly prized not only for its esthetic beauty but also for its symbolic significance. 84 Malachite is common copper source. Copper sulfides, including chalcopyrite, can be found toward the end of Oxidation occurs in the higher layers of the sediments. Malachite green (MG) is a synthetic hue used in dyeing textiles, including silk, linen, wool, and leather. Cationic painting and fishing in the field. It is also recommended as a fungicide. 85
Hematite
Hematite, an iron oxide mineral, was widely employed by ancient societies because to its vivid red and brown colors. This mineral was very important in ancient textile dyeing and body painting traditions. Hematite was used by many civilizations, including the Egyptians, Greeks, and Native Americans, to create brilliant red and brown colors. In textiles, hematite dyeing produced long-lasting and vibrant hues that were desirable for garments and ornamental materials. The mineral’s capacity to generate a wide range of earthy hues made it a flexible and useful resource in ancient dyeing methods, demonstrating its extensive use and cultural significance. 86
Kaolin
Kaolin, a fine, white clay, is commonly used as a mordant in textile dyeing. Its primary role is to facilitate the bonding of natural dyes to textile fibers, thereby improving the colorfastness and durability of the dyes. By allowing the dyes to adhere more effectively to the fabric, kaolin ensures that the colors remain vibrant and resistant to washing and fading over time. This makes it an invaluable component in the dyeing process, particularly in historical and artisan dyeing practices. 87
Bentonite
Bentonite, another type of clay, is also used as a mordant in textile dyeing. Like kaolin, bentonite aids in the attachment of dye molecules to fibers, enhancing the intensity and longevity of the colors. This clay helps to achieve more vibrant and long-lasting hues, making it a popular choice in both historical and modern dyeing applications. Its effectiveness in improving dye uptake and stability is well-regarded, contributing to its continued use in eco-friendly and sustainable dyeing practices. 88 Table 1 shows various sources of bio-colorants.
Different sources of bio-colorants.
Fabrication method bio-colorants into textiles
The fabrication of bio-colorants into textiles involves extracting dyes from natural sources like plants, insects, and microorganisms using methods such as solvent extraction. The fabric is prepared through scouring and mordanting, then dyed by immersion in a dye bath with controlled conditions. Post-dyeing treatments include rinsing and drying to enhance colorfastness. This eco-friendly method reduces environmental impact and health risks while promoting sustainability. 92 The methods for fabricating textiles that incorporate bio-colorants are illustrated in Figure 4.
Bio-colorants integrated textiles fabrication methods.
Dip and dry method
Dip and dry fabrication for textiles is dipping a textile substrate in a solution containing functional ingredients and then drying it to create the desired coating or treatment. This process is commonly used to apply various materials, such as carbon nanotubes (CNTs), graphene, and conductive polymers, to fabrics to enhance their electrical conductivity and other properties. This approach is commonly used in textile engineering to give materials features including water repellent, antibacterial activity, and UV protection.
Process flow
The dip and dry fabrication method for textiles involves several key steps. Initially, the preparation of the solution is conducted where the functional material such as nanoparticles, polymers, or chemicals is dissolved or dispersed in a solvent to form the treatment solution. 93 Following this, the textile substrate is immersed in the solution during the dipping stage, ensuring complete saturation of the material. Afterward, the treated textile undergoes a drying process to remove the solvent, thereby leaving the functional material adhered to the fibers. This drying can occur at room temperature or with the application of heat. Additionally, some treatments may require an optional curing step to enhance the bonding of the functional material to the textile fibers, which might involve heating or UV radiation. The process can be repeated multiple times to achieve the desired level of conductivity. This method effectively imparts various functional properties to textiles, such as water repellency, antimicrobial characteristics, and UV protection.94,95
Exhaust method
The exhaust dyeing process, also known as batch dyeing, is a typical technique in textile manufacturing for applying dyes or other chemical treatments to fabrics. This procedure entails immersing the textile material in a dye bath, where the dye is progressively absorbed by the fibers under regulated circumstances. Here’s a thorough description of the exhaust dyeing procedure.
Process flow
The exhaust dyeing method involves several critical steps to ensure the effective coloration of textiles. Initially, pretreatment of textile fabrics is crucial for achieving quality dyeing and printing results. It involves removing impurities such as dirt, dust, and wax to ensure the fabric surface is clean and receptive to dyes and pigments. 96 Then the dye bath is prepared by dissolving the desired dye or treatment agents in water, often incorporating auxiliaries like leveling agents, pH regulators, and wetting agents to promote even dyeing. The textile material is then loaded into the dyeing machine, which may be a drum, jet, or another type of batch dyeing machine. Immersion and circulation follow, where the textile is immersed in the dye bath, and the machine circulates the textile and dye solution to ensure uniform exposure. The temperature and agitation speed are carefully controlled to facilitate dye uptake. The dye bath is gradually heated to a specific temperature, which varies depending on the dye and fiber type, aiding in better dye penetration and fixation. The textile remains in the heated dye bath for a set period, allowing the dye to exhaust fully onto the fabric, ensuring maximum dye uptake. After dyeing, the textile is rinsed and washed to remove any unreacted dye and auxiliary chemicals, a crucial step for achieving color fastness. Finally, the dyed textile is dried, completing the process. 97
Padding method
Padding is a common textile finishing process that involves the application of a chemical solution or paste to a fabric to impart specific properties, such as waterproofing, flame retardancy, or dyeing. There are two types of padding
Process flow
The first step in the padding process is the preparation of the padding solution or paste. This solution typically contains water, a binder, and the desired functional chemicals such as dyes, resins, or waterproofing agents. The concentration and composition of the padding solution are critical and depend on the desired end-properties of the fabric. During padding, the fabric is passed through a padding mangle, which consists of two or more rollers. As the fabric passes through the nip, the gap between the rollers, it is saturated with the padding solution, and the excess liquid is squeezed out, ensuring even application. The pressure applied and the speed at which the fabric moves through the rollers can be adjusted to control the amount of solution retained in the fabric. After padding, the fabric needs to be dried to remove excess moisture and to fix the chemicals onto the fibers. This can be achieved using various drying methods such as hot air drying, infrared drying, or cylinder drying. For certain finishes, especially those involving resins, a curing process may be necessary. This involves heating the fabric to a specific temperature for a set period to ensure the chemical finish is properly fixed to the fabric. 98
Electro-spinning
Electro-spinning is a versatile and powerful fabrication method used in textile manufacturing to create ultra-fine fibers from a variety of materials. This process is highly valued for its ability to produce fibers with diameters ranging from nanometers to micrometers. It involves the use of electrostatic forces to draw out polymer solutions into fibers, which can be collected as nonwoven membranes or uniaxially aligned arrays. It has applications in various fields including filtration, biomedical devices, and protective clothing. 99
Process flow
The process begins with the preparation of a polymer solution, where a polymer is dissolved in a solvent, such as water or organic solvents, to achieve the appropriate viscosity and conductivity. 58 This solution is then extruded through a spinneret, which is typically a syringe or needle. The spinneret is placed between a pair of metal electrodes, such as stainless steel or copper, that are set at a controlled distance. A high-voltage power supply generates an electric field between the electrodes, causing the polymer solution to form a droplet at the spinneret tip. This droplet elongates into a cone known as a Taylor cone due to the electrostatic forces. From the apex of the Taylor cone, a fine jet of the polymer solution is ejected and rapidly solidifies as the solvent evaporates. The resulting fibers are collected on a grounded substrate, which can be a metal stencil plate or a rotating drum. This method allows precise control over the fiber diameter and material properties, making electro-spun textiles highly suitable for advanced applications in filtration, biomedical devices, and protective clothing. 100
Other bio-colorant fabrication methods
The spray dyeing method applies a bio-colorant solution to fabric using a spray gun or nozzle, allowing for precise dye distribution. After application, the fabric is dried and fixed, ensuring colorfastness. This technique is ideal for creating gradient and tie-dye effects, offering flexibility for artistic designs. 101
In the Batik method, wax is meticulously applied to fabric in designated areas to resist dye penetration. Subsequently, the fabric undergoes dyeing with bio colorants, where the waxed sections repel the dye, preserving the original color. Following dyeing, the wax is removed, unveiling intricate and detailed patterns. Widely utilized for its ability to produce unique, handcrafted designs, Batik is favored for its versatility in creating visually captivating textiles with cultural significance. 102
Bio-colorant fabrication methods, like fermentation and enzymatic reactions, enzyme generated by microorganism to synthesize bio pigment, utilize natural processes to imbue fabrics with color. These eco-friendly techniques employ renewable resources, yielding a spectrum of hues, from subtle naturals to vivid tones. Additionally, spent coffee grounds can serve as a sustainable bio-colorant source, undergoing fermentation to produce a pigment for fabric dyeing. This approach significantly diminishes the ecological footprint associated with conventional synthetic dyes. 103
Application of bio-colorants in healthcare
Bio-colorants have numerous applications in healthcare due to their therapeutic, antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anticancer properties. These natural pigments can be used to enhance the nutritional and medicinal value of food products, providing antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects that can help protect against chronic diseases. Additionally, some bio-colorants have antimicrobial and anticancer properties, making them potential candidates for developing new treatments. Furthermore, bio-colorants are biodegradable and non-toxic, offering a more environmentally friendly alternative to synthetic dyes. 104 The applications of bio-colorants textiles in various healthcare sectors are stated in Figure 5.
Bio-colorant integrated textiles applications.
Wound dressings
The application of bio-colorants in wound dressings is a relatively new and innovative area of research. Wound healing is regulated by resident skin cells, blood mononuclear cells, cytokines, chemokines, extracellular matrix, growth factors, and other regulatory substances. 105 In the event of an acute wound, the right concentration and activity of the chemicals leads to a regulated healing process that happens in three major overlapping and consecutive phases the inflammatory phase, the proliferative phase, and the remodeling phase.106,107
On the other hand, Bio-colorants are bioactive agents that can be incorporated into wound dressings to enhance their healing properties. Bio colorants, derived from natural sources such as plants, microorganisms, and algae, are emerging as promising materials for wound dressings due to their multifaceted properties. 108 These bio-colorants not only provide antimicrobial and antioxidant benefits but also enhance the wound healing process. For instance, aloe vera extracts are known for their wound healing and anti-inflammatory properties, promoting collagen synthesis and reducing inflammation. 109 Betalains from beets and carotenoids from carrots and tomatoes offer powerful antioxidant properties, reducing oxidative stress and promoting faster healing, coriander also has healing properties. 110 Moreover, bio-colorants like anthocyanins can act as visual indicators for wound monitoring by changing color with pH, indicating infection or other wound conditions. 111 Incorporating bio-colorants into hydrogels, nanofibers, films, and membranes enhances their functionality, providing a moist environment conducive to healing and protection against infections. 1 Various modern dressings utilize biocompatible and biodegradable materials, maintaining a moist environment to aid in healing. Textiles dyed with bioactive components show antimicrobial activity in Table 2.
Antimicrobial activity of textiles dyed with bioactive components.
Commonly used wound dressings such as hydrogels, hydrocolloids, alginates, foams, and films are known for their biocompatibility and biodegradability, which promote effective wound healing. 118 Natural biomaterials like chitosan, collagen, and polysaccharides are also employed in wound dressings due to their ability to promote tissue regeneration. 119 Additionally, bioinspired materials like silk fibroin, which are derived from natural biological systems, show significant potential in enhancing tissue regeneration and wound healing. Together, these materials offer innovative solutions for advanced wound care, combining biocompatibility, biodegradability, and regenerative properties to support the healing process. 120 In a wide range of applications, biomaterials exhibiting antimicrobial characteristics provide novel approaches to the problem of bacterial contamination and infections. Physical, chemical, and biological interactions are the main categories into which these materials’ antibacterial mechanisms fall; these three types of interactions frequently complement one another to eradicate bacteria or at least slow their growth.121,122 The surface structure of the material is the primary target of physical antibacterial mechanisms. For example, similar to how cicada wings and other naturally antimicrobial surfaces physically harm bacterial cell membranes by puncturing them, surfaces that are either nanostructured or rough can do the same. 123 One more physical method is contact killing, which involves using materials such as graphene or black phosphorus to break the cell walls of bacteria when they come into direct contact with them. 124 Moreover, biomaterials engineered with nano-topographical features can further inhibit adhesion and proliferation of bacteria. 125 Analogous chemical antimicrobial processes are also important. Metal ions and reactive oxygen species (ROS) are among the active agents that many biomaterials are engineered to release. 126 The capacity of silver, copper, and zinc ions to disrupt bacterial DNA, proteins, and cell membranes, resulting in cell death, makes them popular ionizers. 127 Materials that produce reactive oxygen species (ROS), like titanium dioxide (TiO₂), cause oxidative stress in bacterial cells, which ultimately leads to their destruction.128,129 Additionally, the release of acids or alkalis by certain biomaterials can change the local pH, making it an unsuitable environment for bacterial survival. In addition, there are substances that can attack bacterial cells by producing radicals that are bactericidal, much like enzymes like peroxidase or catalase. 130 In addition to killing bacteria, this chemical approach lessens the likelihood that they will develop resistance, an issue that is becoming increasingly problematic with conventional antibiotics. Biological mechanisms offer an extra line of protection against bacteria. Natural antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are a potential strategy for functionalizing biomaterials. 131 These peptides can disrupt bacterial membranes while being relatively safe for human cells. Biomaterials can hinder bacterial adhesion or disrupt quorum sensing, the communication system bacteria use to coordinate biofilm development, thus preventing biofilm formation a significant obstacle in fighting bacterial infections.131,132 Incorporating bacteriophages viruses designed to target and destroy bacteria into biomaterials is another novel strategy. By delivering bacteriophages to specific bacteria, these materials can eliminate pathogens with pinpoint accuracy while sparing beneficial microbes. By integrating different strategies, biomaterials with synergistic antibacterial mechanisms are able to increase their effectiveness. For instance, the antimicrobial effect can be enhanced by biomaterials that release metal ions while also producing reactive oxygen species (ROS). 133 Not only does this mix of approaches boost performance, but it also tackles problems like bacterial resistance. Biomaterials with antimicrobial properties are discovering numerous uses in different fields. Implants, catheters, and wound dressings all make use of them to keep infections at bay. 134 Healthcare workers and PPE are the target consumers of newly developed antibacterial textiles. Food packaging also relies heavily on these materials to keep perishable goods free of microorganisms while in transit. Another example of the adaptability of antibacterial biomaterials is their use in environmental applications like water purification systems and air filters. Figure 6 shows different bio active materials action against microbes.
(a) The schematic depiction of the mechanism by which copper exerts its antibacterial action. Reproduced with permission 135 , Copyright ©2020, Elsevier; (b) Ag nanoparticles’ (AgNPs) potential antibacterial action schematic. Reproduced with permission 136 , Copyright ©2020, Elsevier; (C) The potential antimicrobial actions of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) illustrated schematically. Reproduced with permission 137 , Copyright ©2012, Elsevier; (D) Principles of antimicrobial action of chitosan and related compounds. Reproduced with permission 138 , Copyright ©2020, Elsevier.
Innovative wound dressings are incorporating bio-colorants and other bioactive compounds to improve wound healing. Some advanced biomaterial applications such as:
Curcumin-loaded biomaterials
Curcumin, a natural compound found in turmeric, has been loaded into biomaterials to enhance skin regeneration. This has shown promising results in improving wound healing. There are several reports in the literature on curcumin-containing dressing products. The most recent research on the biological characteristics of curcumin-enriched biomaterials is summarized by Gupta et al. This work loaded water-soluble curcumin hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin supramolecular inclusion complex onto biosynthetic cellulose generated by Gluconacetobacter xylinus (ATCC 23770) through solvent evaporation technique to synthesize hydrogel dressings. The results confirmed that hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin enhanced the aqueous solubility of curcumin, allowing its loading into bacterial cellulose hydrogels. These hydrogels, characterized for wound management, exhibited haemocompatibility, cytocompatibility, anti-staphylococcal, and antioxidant properties, supporting their potential use as hydrogel dressings. 139
Alginate dressing
Alginate dressings, derived from natural brown algae polysaccharides, are available in braided or non-braided forms and exhibit a strong capacity to absorb exudates, becoming gelatinous upon contact. They are effective for treating venous ulcers, sinus wounds, and severe exudative wounds. The primary mechanism involves sodium ion exchange with calcium ions in the dressings, forming a gel that maintains a moist environment, promotes cell proliferation, reduces pain, and protects new tissue. This process activates macrophages, which remove infectious tissue and scabs, release growth factors, and stimulate fibroblast and keratinocyte proliferation. Additionally, alginates enhance platelet adhesion, activate intrinsic coagulation factors, and stop bleeding. Suitable for superficial wounds, medium to large exudative wounds, and infectious or cancerous wounds, alginate dressings form a gel on the wound bed, keeping nerve endings moist, relieving pain, and promoting epithelial regeneration. They also aid in autolysis and debridement by hydrating necrotic tissues. 140
Bacterial cellulose (BC) applications
BC has been used in wound dressings due to its excellent fluid retention and medication loading properties. BC-based composites and blends have been evaluated for their potential in creating an ideal microenvironment for wound healing. Bacterial cellulose (BC) consists of glucose units linked by β-1,4-glycosidic bonds, synthesized by bacteria like Gluconacetobacter xylinus via cellulose synthase. 141 Its chemical structure allows hydroxyl groups on these glucose units enable hydrogen bonding between cellulose chains, forming strong, stable fibrils. This nanofibrillar network gives bacterial cellulose (BC) mechanical stability and a high surface area for interacting with additives or bioactive compounds. In wound healing, BC interacts with substances through adsorption or bonding, such as incorporating antimicrobial agents like silver nanoparticles to enhance its properties. BC’s composition and structure enable it to maintain moisture balance and support tissue regeneration, making it an effective wound dressing material. 142
Hydrogel dressings
Hydrogel wound dressings, characterized by their unique and flexible physicochemical properties, represent a high-end material ideal for wound care. One such hydrogel, developed by coordinative cross-linking of multi-arm thiolated polyethylene glycol (SH-PEG) with silver nitrate and incorporating the angiogenic drug desferrioxamine, demonstrates significant potential for wound regeneration.27,143 This multifunctional hydrogel is particularly effective for diabetic skin wounds and open wounds, as it can flexibly respond to high infection risks and external mechanical stimuli.
Hydrogel
Another innovative hydrogel dressing, named EHO-85, has been recently synthesized for the treatment of moist wounds. EHO-85 is notable for its antioxidant properties and its ability to maintain an acidic environment, which is crucial for the healing process. 144 This hydrogel accelerates the healing of hard-to-heal chronic wounds and stimulates, the formation of granulation tissue in various types of wounds. These advanced hydrogel dressings offer promising solutions for wound management, combining flexibility, infection control, and enhanced healing properties. 145
Surgical drapes and clothing
Bio colorants, derived from natural sources like plants and microbes, are gaining attention for use in medical textiles due to their eco-friendly, antimicrobial, and hypoallergenic properties. This is particularly beneficial for surgical drapes, where maintaining sterility and minimizing allergic reactions are crucial.
Henna-dyed surgical drapes
Henna, derived from the Lawsonia inermis plant, boasts lawsone (2-hydroxy-1,4-naphthoquinone), a compound renowned for its potent antimicrobial properties. Lawsone’s mechanism involves binding with carbohydrates and proteins in bacterial cell walls, disrupting their structure and rendering them inactive. Extracts of henna, particularly the alcoholic and oily varieties, are rich in lawsone and exhibit significant antimicrobial activity against a spectrum of pathogens including coagulase-negative staphylococci, Staphylococcus aureus, ß-hemolytic streptococci, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The efficacy of henna extracts has found applications in medical settings, notably in surgical drapes, where they not only serve as a physical barrier but actively reduce bacterial load, thereby enhancing infection control measures and contributing to improved patient outcomes. The multifaceted antimicrobial prowess of henna underscores its potential as a natural alternative in healthcare, warranting further exploration for broader medical applications. 146
Turmeric (Curcuma longa)
Curcumin, the principal bioactive substance of turmeric (Curcuma longa L.), is known for its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral properties. A study assessed curcumin’s antimicrobial efficacy against over 100 strains of pathogens from 19 species using the broth microdilution method to determine minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) had done. Results showed that Gram-positive bacteria were generally more sensitive to curcumin than Gram-negative bacteria. Notably, many clinical strains exhibited poor sensitivity, with high MICs (⩾2000 µg/mL) for multidrug-resistant (MDR) Staphylococcus aureus, S. haemolyticus, Escherichia coli, and Proteus mirabilis. However, curcumin was effective against certain species and strains, including Streptococcus pyogenes (median MIC = 31.25 µg/ml), methicillin-sensitive S. aureus (250 µg/ml), Acinetobacter lwoffii (250 µg/ml), and some strains of Enterococcus faecalis and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (62.5 µg/ml). The study concluded that while curcumin shows promise as an antibacterial agent, its activity is highly selective. 147 Table 3 displays the various uses of textiles that incorporate bioactive components, such as surgical drapes and clothing.
Applications of bioactive component integrated textiles in surgical drapes and clothing.
Patient apparel
Patient apparel refers to the clothing and accessories worn by patients during medical procedures or hospital stays. This includes items such as gowns, robes, masks, gloves, and other protective gear designed to maintain sterility and prevent the transmission of infections. Sustainable clothing or patient apparel refers to garments that are designed, manufactured, and distributed in environmentally friendly and socially responsible ways. This approach aims to minimize the negative impacts on the environment. This can be achieved by using bio colorants.
Henna and turmeric dyes can be used in patient clothing to reduce bacterial load. Henna, from the Lawsonia inermis plant, contains lawsone, which disrupts bacterial cell walls and is effective against pathogens like coagulase-negative staphylococci, Staphylococcus aureus, ß-hemolytic streptococci, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Turmeric (Curcuma longa) contains curcumin, known for its antioxidant and antimicrobial properties, particularly against Gram-positive bacteria like Streptococcus pyogenes and methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus, as well as some Gram-negative bacteria such as Acinetobacter lwoffii and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. However, curcumin is less effective against multidrug-resistant strains like MDR Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli.161,162
Chronic diseases treatment
A chronic disease “is a physical or mental health condition that lasts more than one year and causes functional restrictions or requires ongoing monitoring or treatment.” Example of chronic disease are cancer, diabetes, hypertension, stroke, heart disease, respiratory diseases, arthritis, obesity, and oral disorders. This can cause hospitalization, long-term impairment, decreased quality of life, and death. 163
Anthocyanins
Anthocyanins, primarily purple phenolic compounds from plants, play a crucial role in plant survival as secondary metabolites. The common sources of anthocyanins are berries, cherries, peaches, grapes, pomegranates, plums, blackcurrants, red onions, red radishes, black beans, eggplants, purple corn, purple carrots, red cabbages and purple sweet potatoes etc. 164 The anthocyanins have delphinidin 3-rutinoside (45%) and cyanidin 3-rutinoside (31%), and the corresponding glucosides at 16% and 8%, respectively in it. 165 Their health benefits for humans have spurred efforts to source these unstable compounds cost-effectively, leading to improved extraction methods. While a wider range of sustainable sources includes non-commercial native plants and agri-waste rich in anthocyanins. Recent years have seen significant advancements in exploring the therapeutic potential of anthocyanins for chronic human diseases. These compounds benefit health by enhancing gut microbiota, reducing oxidative stress and inflammation, and modulating neuropeptides like insulin-like growth factor-1. 166 Health benefits include reduced cognitive decline, organ protection (liver, cardiovascular system, gastrointestinal tract, kidneys), improved bone health, obesity management, and better glucose and lipid metabolism. 167
Carotenoids
Carotenoids, such as β-carotene, lycopene, and lutein, are chemicals known for their powerful antioxidant properties. These compounds help protect cells from damage, potentially reducing the risk of various chronic diseases. For instance, they may play a role in preventing age-related macular degeneration and certain types of cancer. Lycopene, a specific carotenoid found abundantly in tomatoes, has been extensively studied for its potential health benefits. Research suggests that lycopene may help reduce the risk of prostate cancer and cardiovascular diseases due to its strong antioxidant capabilities, highlighting the importance of carotenoids in promoting overall health and preventing disease. 168
Betalains
Betalains, comprising chemicals such as betanin and vulgaxanthin, are recognized for their potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. These compounds hold promise for managing chronic conditions like diabetes and neurodegenerative disorders. Betanin, the red pigment found in beets, is especially significant due to its strong anti-inflammatory effects. Research indicates that betanin can help mitigate chronic inflammation, which is a common underlying factor in conditions such as arthritis. By reducing inflammation, betalains like betanin not only support joint health but also potentially offer therapeutic benefits for a range of chronic health issues, making them valuable in the promotion of overall well-being and disease prevention. 169 The use of textiles with bioactive components for the treatment of chronic diseases is illustrated in Table 4.
Chronic diseases treatment with bioactive component integrated textiles.
Cancer treatment
Cancer is a disease characterized by the uncontrolled growth and spread of abnormal cells in the body. These cancer cells can invade nearby tissues and organs, forming malignant tumors that have the potential to metastasize to other parts of the body. Genetic mutations, environmental factors, direct exposure in UV or sunlight and lifestyle choices can contribute to the development of cancer. 180 Bio-colorants from pigment-producing microorganisms have been studied for their potential role in preventing cancer due to their bioactive properties. 181
Carotenoids
Carotenoids are a class of pigments that include beta-carotene, lutein, and astaxanthin, among others. These compounds are known for their antioxidant properties, which help neutralize free radicals and protect cells from oxidative damage. 182 In cancer treatment, carotenoids have been studied for their ability to inhibit tumor growth, induce apoptosis (cell death) in cancer cells, and modulate immune responses. 183 For example, beta-carotene has shown antitumor activity and may play a role in preventing cancer development. Lutein, another carotenoid, has been reported to enhance matrix metalloproteinase-9 production and phagocytosis, potentially influencing cancer cell behavior. 184
Naphthaquinones
Naphthaquinones are compounds with antioxidant and protective properties against oxidative stress. Oxidative stress occurs when there is an imbalance between the production of free radicals and the body’s ability to neutralize them with antioxidants. 185 Free radicals, such as reactive oxygen species (ROS), can damage cells and DNA, leading to various diseases, including cancer. Studies have suggested that naphthaquinones can scavenge free radicals and protect cells from damage caused by reactive oxygen species. 186 In cancer treatment, naphthaquinones may help inhibit cancer cell proliferation and promote cell death through their antioxidant activities by disrupting the redox balance within cancer cells, naphthaquinones can induce apoptosis, a process of programed cell death. For instance, naphthaquinones produced by Comamonas testosteroni have shown protective roles against superoxide free radicals, indicating their potential in combating oxidative stress-related cancer development. 187
Violacein
Violacein is a purple pigment produced by the bacterium Chromobacterium violaceum, known for its cytotoxic and antiviral properties. The multifaceted properties of violacein, including its cytotoxic, antiviral, anti-malarial, and anti-cancer effects, highlight its therapeutic potential in combating various diseases. Research has demonstrated that violacein exhibits inhibitory effects on Plasmodium growth, suggesting potential anti-malarial properties. 188 Additionally, violacein has shown promise in inhibiting cancer cell proliferation and inducing apoptosis in various cancer cell lines. The compound’s cytotoxic effects make it a candidate for further exploration in cancer treatment strategies. 189
Other natural colorants
Natural colorants are rich in bioactive compounds like polyphenols, carotenoids, and flavonoids, which play key roles in cancer prevention. Polyphenols such as curcumin and resveratrol are antioxidants that reduce oxidative stress and DNA damage. Carotenoids like lycopene and beta-carotene protect cells from oxidative damage, a factor in cancer progression. Flavonoids, found in anthocyanins, have anti-inflammatory effects, inhibit cancer cell growth, induce apoptosis, and interfere with tumor development pathways. Curcumin, from turmeric, modulates cancer cell proliferation and induces apoptosis, while resveratrol, in red grapes and berries, inhibits cancer cell proliferation and promotes cell cycle arrest. Lycopene, found in tomatoes, is linked to reduced cancer risk, especially prostate cancer, by modulating signaling pathways and promoting cancer cell death. These bioactive compounds help prevent cancer by targeting oxidative stress, inflammation, cell proliferation, and apoptosis, making them valuable for a healthy diet and overall well-being. 190 Bioactive component integrated textiles are displayed in Table 5.
Bioactive component integrated textiles for medicine and healthcare - cancer treatment.
Drug delivery system
A drug delivery system (DDS) is a formulation or device that allows the entrance of a medicinal material into the body while improving its efficacy and safety by regulating drug release, targeting particular areas, and increasing bioavailability. These systems can administer medications via a variety of routes, including oral, parenteral, sublingual, topical, transdermal, nasal, ophthalmic, rectal, and vaginal delivery. The purpose of a DDS is to maximize a drug’s therapeutic efficacy by regulating parameters such as pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and toxicity, while also improving patient convenience and compliance. 201
Bio colorants, such as carotenoids, flavonoids, anthocyanins, chlorophyll, betalains, and crocin, have many potential uses in drug delivery systems. These natural colorants, obtained from various plants, can make drug formulations more attractive and acceptable. Many bio-colorants also offer health benefits; for example, carotenoids, flavonoids, and betalains have strong antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-cancer properties. Using these bio-colorants in drug delivery can provide additional therapeutic effects. 202
Biopolymers from natural sources like alginate, chitosan, and pectin are commonly used to encapsulate drugs for controlled release. 203 These biopolymers can form nanoparticles, microparticles, or hydrogels that protect the drug and release it in a targeted and sustained manner, often responding to changes in pH or other stimuli. 204 Examples include alginate nanoparticles loaded with drugs like rifampicin, ibuprofen, metformin hydrochloride, and diclofenac sodium for controlled oral delivery. 205 Chitosan-based hydrogels are used for injectable, stimuli-responsive drug delivery systems, and carotenoids like lycopene and astaxanthin are added to drug formulations for their antioxidant benefits, However, there are still challenges in creating biocompatible carriers that are target-specific and have optimal drug loading and release properties.
Comparative analysis of bio-colorants with synthetic colorants
In textile apparel manufacturing, bio-colorants and synthetic colorants display distinct performance characteristics that impact their application. Bio colorants, derived from natural sources, offer a more limited and often less vibrant color palette, with variability depending on the source and extraction process. They typically have lower color fastness, making them more prone to fading when exposed to light, washing, and other environmental factors, necessitating additional treatments for improved durability. 206 The dyeing process with bio-colorants is more complex and time-consuming, often involving traditional methods and the use of mordants. 207 Despite their ecological and health benefits, including lower toxicity and biodegradability, bio-colorants are usually more expensive and challenging to scale for industrial use. 208 In contrast, synthetic colorants provide a wide and vibrant range of colors with superior consistency and color fastness, maintaining their integrity under various conditions. Their application is more streamlined, facilitating efficient large-scale production. 209 However, synthetic dyes involve toxic chemicals in their production and application, contributing to environmental pollution and potential health risks overall, while bio-colorants align with sustainable and health-conscious practices, synthetic colorants are preferred for their cost-effectiveness, ease of application, and robust performance in large-scale textile manufacturing. 210
Cost-effectiveness
In analyzing the cost-effectiveness of bio-colorants versus synthetic colorants in textiles, several factors come into play, including raw material costs, production processes, scalability, and market demand. Bio colorants, sourced from natural materials like plants and microorganisms, often incur higher raw material costs due to their limited availability and the complexity of extraction and purification processes thus resulting in higher initial production costs compared to synthetic colorants, which are derived from readily available petroleum-based chemicals and benefit from established, efficient manufacturing techniques that lower production costs significantly. 211 Additionally, the application of bio-colorants typically requires more intricate processes, such as multiple extraction stages and the use of mordants to fix the dyes. Scaling up bio-colorant production to meet industrial demands can be challenging and costly due to the need for large quantities of natural resources and potential variability in quality and yield. Conversely, synthetic colorants are highly scalable, providing consistent quality and color at a lower cost due to their simplified application processes and the ability to be mass-produced with predictable results. 212 Despite their higher costs, bio-colorants are gaining market appeal due to rising consumer interest in sustainability and natural products, which can sometimes justify their premium pricing but eventually synthetic colorants remain the dominant choice in the industry for their cost efficiency, ease of use, and reliable performance, making them more economically viable for large-scale textile manufacturing. 213
Bio colors and natural mordants are explored as eco-systems in textile dyeing, aiming to reduce environmental impacts and improve water consumption, pollution, and treatment. 214 In recent days, a research showed bio-colorants that are found from tea polyphenols can dye fabrics with admirable color fastness and meet application requirements, making them a cost-effective alternative to synthetic dyestuffs. 215 Although fungal pigments are biodegradable and sustainable, making them comparatively advantageous to synthetic dyes in textile dyeing. 216 Also there are nanoparticle specialized treatment as in biologically synthesized nanoparticles which can degrade toxic dyes, making them a cost-effective option for textile dyeing. 217
Environmental impact
The environmental impact of bio-colorants versus synthetic colorants in textile manufacturing highlights significant contrasts in sustainability, pollution, and resource use. Natural colorants have a relative greener life cycle but are not economical, while synthetic colorants use non-renewable and non-green raw materials, causing environmental challenges. 218 Additionally, bio-colorants often involve fewer harmful chemicals, leading to a reduction in chemical oxygen demand (COD) by up to 70% in wastewater, compared to synthetic dyes.219,220 Their biodegradable nature ensures that residues degrade more rapidly in soil and water, minimizing long-term pollution. However, large-scale cultivation of natural dye sources can strain resources, potentially impacting biodiversity and requiring sustainable practices to avoid habitat disruption. On the other hand, synthetic colorants, produced from petrochemicals, rely on energy-intensive processes that contribute significantly to greenhouse gas emissions, with the textile industry responsible for about 1.2 billion tons of CO₂ annually, roughly 8% of global emissions.221,222 Synthetic dyes also generate considerable water pollution, with dye effluents accounting for up to 20% of the world’s wastewater and introducing around 72 toxic chemicals into water systems, of which 30 cannot be removed.223,224 These effluents often contain hazardous compounds such as azo dyes and heavy metals, which are persistent in the environment and can take decades to degrade, posing severe risks to aquatic life and ecosystems. 225 Also in textile manufacturing, these synthetic colorants produce highly toxic effluent that can clog soil pores and negatively impact human health and the environment. 226 Since the environmental impact of synthetic dyes in textile manufacturing is harmful, hence laccases are used for discoloration enzymatic treatment of colored wastewater before discharge into water bodies. 225 Also bioremediation is a promising and upcoming active field of research for treating unwanted color and target compounds from contaminated environments, potentially improving the quality of textile effluent. 227 The integrated treatment strategy combining biological and photochemical oxidation processes effectively decolorizes synthetic textile wastewater, achieving discharge limits and minimizing operating costs. 32 Enzymatic mechanisms in the reduction of azo dyes can help reduce environmental impact and public health concerns associated with their use in textile manufacturing. 228
Despite the environmental drawbacks, synthetic colorants dominate due to their cost-effectiveness, broad color range, and high color fastness, making them suitable for large-scale manufacturing. They are subject to strict regulations to mitigate their environmental impact, but compliance can increase operational costs and complexity. In contrast, bio-colorants face fewer regulatory hurdles but are more expensive due to the complexities of natural material extraction and dyeing processes. They also require sustainable sourcing and fair-trade practices to ensure minimal ecological disruption. As consumer demand for eco-friendly products grows, bio-colorants are gaining traction despite their higher costs, supported by advancements in production techniques. The choice between bio-colorants and synthetic colorants often depends on balancing environmental sustainability with economic and practical considerations, reflecting the ongoing challenge of reducing the ecological footprint of the textile industry while maintaining cost efficiency and performance.
Health and safety considerations
The health and safety implications of bio-colorants compared to synthetic colorants in textile manufacturing present a compelling analysis of their impacts on workers, consumers, and environmental sustainability. 229 As the textile industry strives for safer and more sustainable practices, understanding these differences is crucial for informed decision-making in production processes.
Bio-colorants typically entail fewer hazardous chemicals, reducing risks of exposure to toxic substances like heavy metals and carcinogenic azo compounds for workers involved in their production and application. 230 This naturally lowers instances of respiratory issues, skin irritations, and other occupational health problems. Additionally, the dyeing processes with bio-colorants often use milder conditions and non-toxic mordants, enhancing the overall safety of the working environment. 231 For consumers, bio-colorants are advantageous as they are less likely to cause skin irritation or allergic reactions, making them suitable for sensitive skin types, including infants. Moreover, the residues from bio-colorants are generally less toxic, translating to a lower risk of adverse health effects upon prolonged skin contact. These colorants from natural resources (plants, microorganisms, and animals) provide safer and healthier food colorants, with potential health-promoting properties. 232 Fungal colorants are a feasible alternative to synthetic dyes in textiles, offering eco-benefits and reducing environmental concerns. 233 To testify, there is a study of which says Dermocybin and dermorubin from Cortinarius sanguineus fungus are non-mutagenic, present low cellular toxicity, and do not induce skin sensitization, making them suitable for use as synthetic dye alternatives in textile manufacturing. 234
Synthetic dyes have adverse effects on all forms of life and can cause skin irritation and contact dermatitis, while biological materials like activated carbon, zeolite, and diatomite can be used for efficient wastewater treatment. 235 Conversely, these colorants pose more substantial health hazards. They often involve exposure to harmful chemicals such as aromatic amines, formaldehyde, and heavy metals during production and application, increasing the likelihood of respiratory ailments, skin diseases, and carcinogenic risks for workers. 236 The dyeing processes with synthetic colorants require high temperatures and toxic auxiliaries, exacerbating occupational hazards through potential chemical spills, burns, and inhalation of harmful fumes. 237 For consumers, textiles dyed with synthetic colorants can retain residues of harmful substances, causing skin irritations, allergic reactions, and, in severe cases, systemic toxicity due to chemicals like azo dyes that break down into carcinogenic components. 238 These persistent pollutants, including hazardous azo dyes and heavy metals, pose severe threats to aquatic life and ecosystems, making synthetic dyes environmentally detrimental. Despite these risks, synthetic colorants dominate due to their cost-effectiveness, broad color range, and high color fastness, making them preferred for large-scale production despite their environmental and health impacts.
Although using bio-colorants in medical and healthcare textiles offers environmental benefits and functionalities such as antimicrobial and antioxidant properties, health and safety considerations include potential skin sensitivities, allergic reactions, and residual chemicals from mordants are still prominent. Here, Table 6 that summarizes the application and the end use side effects:
Summary of bio-colorants used in medicine and healthcare outlining the modifications, applications, and potential health concerns.
Color and stability
In the realm of textile manufacturing, the comparative analysis of color stability and durability between bio-colorants and synthetic colorants underscores critical considerations in product performance and environmental sustainability. Bio colorants, derived from natural sources such as plants, insects, and microorganisms, offer a diverse palette of colors characterized by their inherent variability and organic origin. While bio-colorants can produce vivid and unique shades, their color stability and durability often depend on factors like the specific plant species used, extraction methods, and the presence of natural mordants.249,250 In general bio-colorants exhibit moderate to good color stability under normal conditions but may show susceptibility to factors such as pH levels, light exposure, and washing. 251 This variability can affect their longevity on textiles, making them more suitable for applications where natural esthetics and biodegradability are prioritized over extended durability. 252 The fastness properties of bio-dyed fabrics are crucial in determining their durability and color stability. Studies have shown that bio-dyed fabrics generally exhibit good washing, rubbing, and light fastness. For instance, in a study on bacterial colorants, all fastness values of the dyed fabrics were quite good. 143 Similarly, in another study on natural dyes from date palm fibrillium, the washing fastness of the dyed fabrics was satisfactory. The rubbing fastness of the dyed fabrics was also evaluated and found to be satisfactory in several studies. 253 Additionally, the light fastness of the dyed fabrics was within a range of acceptable standard values in all studies. 254
The color yield (K/S) of bio-dyed fabrics is often higher for certain fibers, such as polyamide, compared to others. For example, in a study on bacterial dyeing of synthetic fabrics, the K/S values of the dyed fabrics were higher for polyamide fabrics compared to polyester fabrics. 143 Similarly, in a study on natural dyes from date palm fibrillium, the highest K/S value was obtained with brown bio-color using the salt-soda process. 96
The pH adjustment and adding salt are necessary to get better results for dyeing certain colors, such as pink and brown polyester. For instance, in a study on bacterial dyeing of synthetic fabrics, pH adjustment and adding salt were necessary to dye pink and brown polyester. 255 On the other hand, adding salt and adjusting pH to 4 gives better results for dyeing blue color on polyamide fabrics. 256
In contrast, synthetic colorants offer superior color retention and resilience against environmental stressors such as sunlight, washing, and chemical exposure. This durability makes synthetic colorants ideal for applications requiring long-term color vibrancy and resistance to fading, such as outdoor fabrics, sportswear, and uniforms. These dyes are designed at the molecular level to form strong bonds with textile fibers, creating a resilient attachment that resists various environmental stressors. The synthetic production process allows for precise control over the chemical composition, enabling the creation of dyes with specific properties that enhance their ability to withstand exposure to light, heat, and washing.205,206 The robust molecular structures of synthetic dyes contribute to their high resistance to photodegradation, ensuring that colors remain vibrant even after prolonged exposure to UV radiation. 205 Additionally, synthetic dyes are formulated to be resistant to chemical interactions with detergents and bleaches, which further enhances their wash fastness. These dyes also tend to penetrate deeper into the fibers and create more stable ionic or covalent bonds, which are less likely to break down during wear or laundering those results in a remarkable ability to retain color vibrancy and intensity over time, making synthetic colorants particularly suited for applications requiring durable and consistent coloration, such as in fashion, home textiles, and industrial fabrics. 257
Application flexibility
Synthetic colorants offer extensive application flexibility due to their ability to produce a wide range of colors that are consistent and reproducible. Manufacturers can achieve precise color matching and customization, making synthetic dyes ideal for large-scale production where color uniformity is crucial. 258 Synthetic dyes can be applied to various textile fibers, including natural fibers like cotton and wool, as well as synthetic fibers such as polyester and nylon. 259 Their versatility extends to different dyeing methods, including exhaust dyeing, continuous dyeing, and printing, allowing for efficient integration into automated textile production processes. Moreover, synthetic dyes often exhibit excellent color fastness properties, ensuring that dyed fabrics maintain their color vibrancy even under rigorous conditions such as washing, sunlight exposure, and abrasion. This reliability makes synthetic colorants suitable for a wide range of applications, from everyday apparel and household textiles to technical textiles used in automotive and outdoor industries.
In contrast, bio-colorants offer a more limited but growing application flexibility in textile manufacturing. These dyes traditionally provide a palette of earthy and subdued hues, which may appeal to consumers seeking natural and eco-friendly products. 260 The hue of colors available in bio-colorants for dyeing textile substrates includes pink, blue, brown, and natural indigo. 261 Bio-colorants can produce pink shades, as seen in studies on bacterial dyeing of synthetic fabrics and cotton fabrics. Blue shades are also achievable through bacterial fermentation, with the most suitable process involving salt and pH adjustment. Brown shades can be produced using bacterial fermentation and salt-soda processes. Natural indigo dyes, extracted from the leaves of Indigofera tinctoria plants, are also used to dye cotton fabrics, ensuring good fastness properties. However, achieving consistent color intensity and reproducibility with bio-colorants can be challenging due to variations in natural pigments and extraction processes. Additionally, the use of bio-colorants often requires additional chemicals or mordants to enhance their color yield and fastness properties, which can further compromise their eco-friendliness and sustainability. 18 Recent advancements in bio-colorants have focused on improving their performance, sustainability, and versatility. Studies have explored the use of bacterial colorants for dyeing synthetic fabrics like polyester and polyamide, offering a more sustainable alternative to synthetic dyes. Additionally, research has investigated the combination of natural colorants and bio-polysaccharides to enhance dye uptake and impart antimicrobial properties to cotton fabrics, resulting in darker shades and improved fastness properties. The dyeability of cotton fabrics with bacterial colorants has also been studied, with the most suitable processes determined for each bio-color. Furthermore, innovative extraction technologies have been developed to obtain bioactive compounds from plant by-products for textile colorants and antimicrobial agents. Bio-colorants are primarily used for specialty applications where natural esthetics and sustainability are prioritized, such as in high-end fashion, eco-friendly apparel lines, and artisanal textiles.
Regulatory compliance
Regulatory compliance in textile manufacturing encompasses adherence to environmental, health, and safety regulations governing the use of colorants, including bio-colorants and synthetic colorants. This aspect significantly influences the selection of dyes based on their compliance with industry standards and legal requirements.
In general, bio-colorants which come from natural sources like plants and microorganisms face fewer regulatory obstacles than synthetic colorants. Their natural origin typically means they contain fewer toxic substances and hazardous chemicals, which simplifies compliance with environmental regulations regarding waste and emissions. Bio-colorants are often perceived as safer for both workers and consumers, reducing the regulatory burden associated with handling and disposal. For instance, the use of natural dyes can lead to lower levels of harmful residues in textile effluents, aligning well with stringent wastewater treatment standards. Additionally, bio-colorants are less likely to contain restricted substances under regulations such as the European Union’s REACH (Registration, Evaluation, Authorization, and Restriction of Chemicals) or the U.S. Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA). 262 This compliance advantage makes bio-colorants an appealing choice for companies striving to meet or exceed regulatory and consumer expectations for environmentally friendly products.
On the other hand, because of their chemical makeup and possible effects on the environment and human health, synthetic colorants, which are generated from petrochemicals, frequently require more stringent regulatory restrictions. They are subject to rigorous controls to ensure safe production, handling, and disposal. Regulatory frameworks such as REACH, the TSCA, and the U.S. Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) impose stringent limits on the use of specific chemicals and mandate extensive testing and reporting. 263
In the United States, the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) regulates the use of synthetic colorants in textiles, ensuring that they do not pose significant risks to human health or the environment. Similarly, the European Union has implemented the REACH regulation, which requires manufacturers to register and evaluate the safety of their chemicals before they can be used in the market. This includes synthetic colorants used in textiles, which must meet specific safety and environmental standards before they can be used commercially. 264
The use of synthetic colorants in textiles is also regulated by the textile industry itself. For instance, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) has established standards for the testing and labeling of textile colorants. These standards ensure that the colorants used in textiles meet specific requirements for colorfastness, lightfastness, and other performance characteristics. 265 For example, azo dyes, widely used in synthetic colorants, can break down into carcinogenic amines, leading to restrictions on their use and necessitating alternative formulations or treatments.125,169,170 Synthetic dyes must also comply with standards regarding hazardous substances in textiles, such as the OEKO-TEX Standard 100, which assesses harmful chemicals in textiles. 266 Additionally, wastewater that comes from textile manufacturing has to follow some criteria since is a critical component in addressing the environmental impacts of textile production, particularly in the dyeing and finishing stages, which are significant sources of water pollution. To mitigate these impacts, regulations enforce stringent controls on the quality and treatment of wastewater before it is discharged into water bodies. 267 These regulations encompass a range of standards and practices designed to limit the release of harmful pollutants such as dyes, chemicals, heavy metals, and other hazardous substances into aquatic environments. Compliance typically involves adhering to specific water quality standards that set permissible limits on parameters such as Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), Total Suspended Solids (TSS), pH, and the concentration of toxic chemicals. 268 For instance, under the U.S. Clean Water Act, textile manufacturers must meet National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit requirements, which define allowable pollutant levels in effluents and mandate regular monitoring and reporting. 269
Textile manufacturers are required to implement comprehensive wastewater treatment systems that utilize physical, chemical, and biological processes to reduce pollutant loads. Techniques such as coagulation-flocculation, activated sludge processes, and advanced oxidation are commonly employed to remove dyes and other contaminants from wastewater. 270 The effectiveness of these systems is crucial for meeting regulatory standards and protecting water quality. For example, advanced treatments like membrane filtration and adsorption are often necessary to achieve the stringent effluent quality required by regulations such as those outlined in the European Union’s Water Framework Directive. 271 These treatments ensure that the effluents discharged into water bodies are sufficiently free of pollutants to prevent ecological harm and protect public health.
Additionally, regulatory frameworks often mandate the restriction or phasing out of hazardous substances used in textile processes. For instance, the European Union’s REACH regulation restricts the use of specific chemicals that pose significant risks to human health and the environment, such as certain azo dyes and heavy metals. 272 Programs like the Zero Discharge of Hazardous Chemicals (ZDHC) initiative advocate for the elimination of hazardous substances from the textile supply chain, promoting best practices in wastewater management and enhancing regulatory adherence.
In summary, while bio-colorants offer a compliance advantage due to their natural, less hazardous profiles, synthetic colorants must navigate a more intricate landscape of regulations aimed at controlling their environmental and health impacts. Compliance for synthetic dyes involves rigorous testing, certification, and adherence to regulations that govern their lifecycle from production to disposal. The choice between bio-colorants and synthetic colorants in textile manufacturing is influenced not only by performance and economic factors but also by the need to meet regulatory requirements, reflecting the broader push toward safer and more sustainable industry practices.
Limitations and challenges
The integration of bioactive components into textiles presents several challenges. One major issue is ensuring the stability and controlled release of these components during wear and wash cycles. Compatibility between the bioactive substances and the textile material can also pose difficulties, affecting the performance and durability of the fabric. Furthermore, the scalability of production and cost-effectiveness remains a significant hurdle in commercial applications. There are also regulatory and safety concerns regarding skin sensitization or allergic reactions. Maintaining the efficacy of bioactive components over time requires advanced techniques, further complicating the manufacturing process. Figure 7 illustrates the challenges associated with integrating bioactive components into textiles.
Challenges associated with integrating bioactive components into textiles.
Standardization
Standardization challenges in the use of bio-colorants versus synthetic colorants in textile manufacturing present significant obstacles due to differences in chemical composition, consistency, and performance. Synthetic colorants benefit from a high degree of standardization in terms of color consistency, reproducibility, and performance under various conditions, which are crucial for large-scale textile production. These colorants are engineered to provide uniform shades, predictable fastness properties, and stability across different fabric types and manufacturing processes. According to industry data, dye batch variation is found in mass produced textile fibers, with variation detectable in single fibers of 3–4 mm length when dye intensity and fiber diameter are optimal, which is essential for maintaining uniform product quality and meeting stringent industry standards. 273 Traditional batch dyeing processes may produce unacceptable shade variations, but new dyeing setups can be improved by modeling the effects of various factors on the dyeing process. 274
In contrast, bio-colorants often face challenges in achieving similar levels of standardization. Natural variations in the source materials, such as plant species or growing conditions, can lead to inconsistencies in color yield and shade. 275 This variability can affect the reproducibility of colors, making it difficult to standardize bio-colorants for industrial use. For example, the same bio-colorant may produce different hues or intensities depending on the specific batch of raw material or extraction process used. 276 Studies have shown that bio-colorants can exhibit color variations with a standard deviation of up to 10% between batches, compared to the <2% variation typical of synthetic dyes. 277 Moreover, bio-colorants often lack the robust performance characteristics of synthetic colorants in terms of lightfastness, wash fastness, and resistance to environmental factors such as pH changes or exposure to chemicals. Synthetic dyes are engineered to meet specific fastness standards, with commercial synthetic dyes achieving lightfastness ratings of 4–5 on the Blue Wool Scale, whereas bio-colorants typically fall between 2 and 4. 278 This discrepancy can limit the use of bio-colorants in applications requiring high durability and performance, such as outdoor fabrics or industrial textiles. Another challenge is the development of standardized processes for the extraction, purification, and application of bio colorants. Unlike synthetic colorants, which are manufactured using precise chemical processes, bio-colorants require careful control of biological and environmental factors during production. This can complicate the scaling up of bio-colorant production and integration into existing textile manufacturing systems, which are often optimized for the use of synthetic dyes. The lack of standardization also impacts regulatory compliance and quality assurance. Synthetic colorants are subject to well-established standards and certifications, such as those set by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and other regulatory bodies, ensuring consistent quality and safety. As such there are ISO standards for textile dyes encompass a range of safety, environmental, performance, analytical, and restricted substance regulations, ensuring the compliance and quality of textile products. 279 ISO 11885 focuses on detecting heavy metals content using ICP-OES, while ISO 17234-1 and ISO 14362-1 address the presence of harmful azo colorants and aromatic amines in textiles and leathers. For environmental considerations, ISO 14024 and ISO 14025 provide guidelines for Type I and Type III environmental labeling and declarations. Performance standards like ISO 105-A01, ISO 105-B02, ISO 105-C06, and ISO 105-E04 ensure color fastness under various conditions including artificial light, laundering, and perspiration. Analytical standards such as ISO 1833 and ISO 3071 guide the analysis of fiber mixtures and the determination of pH in textile extracts. 280 These standards collectively ensure that textile dyes meet stringent health, safety, and environmental requirements while maintaining desired performance attributes. In contrast, bio colorants, being relatively new in industrial applications, lack comprehensive standardization frameworks, which can complicate compliance with industry and environmental standards.
In summary, the standardization challenges of bio-colorants in textile manufacturing arise from their natural variability, inconsistent performance characteristics, and the need for specialized processing techniques. These challenges hinder their widespread adoption in comparison to synthetic colorants, which benefit from well-established production methods, predictable performance, and rigorous standardization. Addressing these issues will require advances in the cultivation, extraction, and application of bio colorants, as well as the development of robust standardization protocols to ensure their reliability and compatibility with modern textile manufacturing practices.
Scalability
Scalability challenges in the use of bio-colorants versus synthetic colorants in textile manufacturing stem from significant differences in raw material availability, production processes, and technological infrastructure. Synthetic colorants, which are derived from petrochemical sources, benefit from well-established industrial processes that enable large-scale, consistent production. The global synthetic dye industry produces approximately 1.2 million metric tons annually, driven by the scalability of chemical synthesis and the ability to precisely control production parameters. This scalability supports the high demand of the textile industry, which consumes over 60% of these dyes for fabric coloring. 281 The synthetic dye production process is highly optimized, allowing for continuous, high-volume manufacturing with relatively low costs and high efficiency. Furthermore, advancements in chemical engineering and automation technologies have streamlined production, reducing variability and enhancing the ability to meet large-scale textile manufacturing needs consistently.
In contrast, the production of bio-colorants faces significant scalability hurdles due to the reliance on natural sources such as plants, insects, and microorganisms. The cultivation and harvesting of these sources are subject to variability in agricultural conditions, climatic changes, and resource availability, leading to inconsistent supply and quality. For example, the yield of plant-based dyes can fluctuate by up to 30% annually due to factors like weather conditions and soil quality, impacting the predictability of production volumes and color consistency. 282 This variability poses challenges for scaling up production to meet industrial demands, where large quantities of uniform dye are required. Moreover, the extraction and processing of bio-colorants involve complex, labor-intensive methods that are not easily scalable. Traditional extraction processes often yield lower quantities of usable dye compared to synthetic counterparts, with efficiency rates for bio-colorant extraction typically ranging from 5% to 20%, compared to over 90% for synthetic dyes. 283 This low efficiency can lead to higher production costs and logistical challenges in supplying sufficient quantities for large-scale textile operations. Additionally, bio-colorants require extensive purification and stabilization processes to achieve the desired color properties and fastness, further complicating scalability. Technological limitations also hinder the scalability of bio colorants. Such as physicochemical instability during extraction and storage is a major limitation hindering the scalability of bio colorants. 284 Unlike synthetic dyes, which can be manufactured in large, automated chemical plants, bio-colorants often require specialized facilities with capabilities for handling natural raw materials and conducting biological extraction processes. 144 These facilities are less common and more expensive to develop, leading to higher capital expenditures and operational costs. 285 Moreover, the integration of bio-colorants into existing textile manufacturing systems, which are primarily designed for synthetic dyes, requires significant modifications to equipment and processes, adding to the scalability challenges.
To address these issues, advancements in biotechnology and agricultural practices are essential. Techniques such as genetic engineering, which can increase the yield and stability of bio colorant-producing organisms, and sustainable farming practices that enhance the reliability of natural dye sources, are critical for improving scalability. 286 Plasma treatment can improve dyeing uptake of textiles with bio colorants, reducing wastewater and toxic chemicals for cleaner production. 209 Despite these efforts, the scalability of bio-colorants remains constrained by the inherent variability and complexity of natural dye sources compared to the standardized, efficient production of synthetic colorants. As a result, synthetic dyes continue to dominate the market, accounting for over 95% of the dyes used in textile manufacturing globally. 287
Reproducibility
The reproducibility of bioactive component-integrated textiles remains a significant limitation, challenging their broader adoption in healthcare applications. Achieving consistent results across batches is complex, as even minor variations in the bioactive agent’s incorporation process can impact the textile’s effectiveness. Factors such as the concentration of bioactive components, uniformity in coating or embedding techniques, and interactions with different textile substrates lead to variations in efficacy and durability. Additionally, environmental factors during production, such as humidity and temperature, further influence the stability of bioactive compounds. The intricate molecular interactions between bioactive agents and textile fibers, which may differ based on the fiber type (e.g. cotton, polyester, or cellulose blends), pose another challenge, often resulting in batch-to-batch variability. These challenges in reproducibility hinder the scaling of these textiles for real-world applications, as maintaining consistent quality across large production volumes is difficult. Furthermore, a lack of standardized protocols for evaluating and comparing bioactivity in textiles complicates reliability assessments, leading to inconsistent findings across studies. Addressing these reproducibility limitations through standardized processing methods and advanced analytical tools is crucial for realizing the full potential of bioactive textiles in medicine and healthcare.
Cost
Cost challenges in the use of bio-colorants versus synthetic colorants in textile manufacturing primarily stem from differences in raw material procurement, production efficiency, and scalability, which significantly affect overall cost structures. Synthetic colorants, derived from petrochemical sources, benefit from highly optimized and industrialized production processes that enable economies of scale, leading to relatively low and stable costs. The large-scale production capabilities of synthetic dyes, with global annual production exceeding 1.2 million metric tons, facilitate cost efficiency, with production costs averaging between $3 to $6 kg/. 288 The ability to mass-produce synthetic dyes in a controlled, continuous process reduces variable costs and minimizes wastage, contributing to their cost-effectiveness. Moreover, synthetic dyes often have higher color yield and fastness properties, which further reduce costs by requiring smaller quantities to achieve the desired intensity and durability on textiles. 289
In contrast, bio-colorants face significant cost challenges due to the labor-intensive and resource-dependent nature of their production. The extraction of dyes from natural sources such as plants, insects, and microorganisms are subject to variability in yield and quality, leading to higher costs and reduced predictability in supply. The cost of producing bio-colorants is typically higher, averaging between $10 to $30 kg/, due to the extensive processing required to extract, purify, and stabilize the dyes. 290 For instance, the cultivation and harvesting of plant-based dyes can be resource-intensive, with the agricultural processes accounting for up to 70% of the total production cost of bio colorants. 291 Additionally, fluctuations in agricultural conditions and the need for sustainable farming practices further contribute to cost variability.
The complexity of bio-colorant extraction also adds to the cost burden. Unlike synthetic dyes, which can be synthesized through straightforward chemical reactions, bio-colorants require complex and often less efficient extraction processes. These processes include the use of solvents, enzymatic treatments, and biological fermentations, which are less standardized and more costly to implement at an industrial scale. 291 Furthermore, the lower color yield of bio colorants, often necessitating larger volumes of raw material to achieve the same dyeing results as synthetic dyes, exacerbates the cost differences. Studies indicate that the color yield of bio-colorants can be 50% lower compared to synthetic dyes, leading to higher consumption of raw materials and increased production costs.
Moreover, the infrastructure required to produce and apply bio-colorants is less developed and more specialized than those synthetic dyes, leading to additional capital investment and operational expenses.
Long term performance
Long-term performance challenges of bio-colorants versus synthetic colorants in textile manufacturing highlight substantial differences in color fastness, durability, and maintenance, affecting the overall longevity and usability of textiles. Synthetic colorants exhibit superior performance in terms of color retention and resistance to various environmental factors. These dyes are designed to withstand extensive exposure to light, water, and abrasion, maintaining their vibrancy and integrity over time. Studies have shown that synthetic dyes achieve up to 95% retention of their original color intensity after 50 washing cycles and exposure to sunlight, with a typical lightfastness rating between 4 and 5 on the Blue Wool Scale (BWS). 292 This high durability makes synthetic dyes ideal for applications where longevity and consistent appearance are critical, such as in outdoor fabrics, workwear, and high-performance textiles.
In contrast, bio-colorants face significant long-term performance challenges due to their inherent variability and sensitivity to environmental factors. They often lack the same level of chemical stability as synthetic dyes, resulting in lower resistance to fading and degradation. For instance, plant-based dyes typically exhibit lightfastness ratings between 2 and 3 on the BWS, indicating moderate to low resistance to sunlight exposure. 138 As a result, textiles colored with bio-colorants may lose their vibrancy more quickly when exposed to light and washing, with studies reporting a color retention rate of around 70% to 80% after 20 washing cycles, significantly lower than that of synthetic dyes. 292 The natural composition of bio-colorants also makes them more susceptible to microbial degradation and changes in pH, which can further compromise their color stability and longevity. 293 Additionally, the application process for bio-colorants often lacks the precision and uniformity achievable with synthetic dyes, leading to inconsistencies in color application and coverage. 294 The lack of standardization in bio-colorant application techniques, coupled with the natural variability of dye sources, poses a challenge for manufacturers aiming to achieve consistent quality in large-scale production.
The environmental and maintenance conditions also play a crucial role in the performance of bio colorants. Natural dyes are more prone to environmental influences such as temperature and humidity, which can accelerate the fading and deterioration process. This sensitivity necessitates careful handling and specific maintenance practices to preserve the color quality over time, often leading to additional costs and efforts for consumers and manufacturers alike. 295 Despite advancements in the formulation and application of bio colorants, including the use of mordants and UV stabilizers to enhance their performance, these measures are not always sufficient to match the durability and fastness properties of synthetic dyes. 296
To improve the long-term performance of bio colorants, ongoing research focuses on developing more stable natural dye formulations and enhancing the compatibility of bio-colorants with modern textile treatments. Innovations in biotechnology and material science aim to increase the resistance of bio-colorants to environmental factors and improve their integration into existing textile manufacturing processes. Nevertheless, the inherent limitations of natural sources continue to pose significant challenges in achieving the same level of durability and maintenance efficiency as synthetic colorants, making synthetic dyes the preferred choice for applications demanding high performance and longevity.
Integration into textiles
The incorporation of bio-colorants into textiles without compromising the properties of the material can be considered a significant challenge. In order to determine whether or not bio-colorants are compatible with different types of textile fibers, including cotton, wool, silk, and synthetics, a comprehensive investigation is required. 297 It is essential for bio-colorants to successfully adhere to the fibers and demonstrate excellent color fastness. This means that they should be able to withstand washing, rubbing, and exposure to light. A lack of fastness can result in color bleeding and fading, which not only shortens the lifespan of the textiles but also lowers their quality. 297 In addition, the process of dying should not cause the fibers of the textile to become brittle or change the texture or feel of the fabric. Some of the innovative techniques that can be used to improve the incorporation of bio-colorants into textiles include the utilization of mordants which are substances that fix dyes onto fibers. 298 The development of polymers that contain bio-colorants blended into them. In addition to this, it is essential to make certain that these methods are not harmful to the environment and do not involve the introduction of any harmful chemicals. The integration of bio-colorants into textiles can be improved with the help of new solutions that can be provided by advancements in biotechnology and materials science. These solutions include ensuring that the textiles meet the necessary performance and durability standards.
Environmental impact
There is a significant obstacle to overcome in order to guarantee the environmental sustainability of bio-colorant integrated textiles. 299 even though bio-colorants are frequently thought of as being more eco-friendly than synthetic dyes, the production and utilization of these colorants need to be carefully managed in order to prevent any adverse effects. In addition to putting a strain on natural resources like water and land, the cultivation of bio-colorant producing organisms on a large scale has the potential to disrupt the ecosystems of the surrounding area. It is essential to implement sustainable cultivation practices. These practices include the utilization of renewable energy sources, the optimization of water usage, and the implementation of organic farming techniques. 300 It is also important that the extraction and processing of bio-colorants should not involve the use of any potentially hazardous chemicals and should produce as little waste as possible. It is also necessary to take into consideration the disposal of bio-colorant integrated textiles at the end of their useful lives in order to guarantee that these textiles do not contribute to environmental pollution. The overall environmental footprint of bio-colorant integrated textiles can be evaluated with the assistance of life cycle assessments, which can then direct the development of approaches that are more environmentally friendly. 301 Enhancing the appeal of bio-colorants and driving their adoption in the textile industry can be accomplished by promoting their use as part of a larger commitment to environmental sustainability.
Consumer acceptance
Consumer acceptance challenges in the use of bio-colorants versus synthetic colorants in textile manufacturing revolve around perceptions of color quality, cost, durability, and sustainability, influencing market demand and adoption. Synthetic colorants, which dominate the textile industry with a market share of over 95%, are favored for their vibrant, consistent colors, high fastness, and affordability. 302 They offer a broad spectrum of hues that can be precisely matched to industry color standards, ensuring uniformity across large production batches. Studies indicate that synthetic dyes can achieve up to 95% color retention after multiple wash cycles and exposure to sunlight, which appeals to consumers seeking durable and low-maintenance textiles. 303 Moreover, the cost-effectiveness of synthetic dyes, typically priced between $3 to $6 kg/, allows manufacturers to offer competitively priced products, meeting consumer expectations for affordability. 304 This consistency and cost efficiency contribute to the widespread consumer preference for synthetic-dyed textiles, particularly in mass-market segments where performance and price are critical factors.
In contrast, bio-colorants face significant consumer acceptance challenges due to their inherent variability, higher costs, and differences in performance. Derived from natural sources such as plants, insects, and microorganisms, bio-colorants often exhibit color variations and lower fastness compared to synthetic dyes. For instance, bio-colorant batches can vary in color intensity and shade, with an unstable deviation between batches, compared to synthetic dyes. This variability can lead to inconsistencies in final textile products, which may not meet consumer expectations for uniform appearance. Additionally, the durability of bio-colorants is generally lower, with medium to moderate retention rate, necessitating more careful handling and maintenance.187,209 These factors can be perceived as disadvantages by consumers accustomed to the robust performance of synthetic-dyed textiles.
Cost is another significant barrier to consumer acceptance of bio colorants. The production of bio-colorants involves labor-intensive processes and resource-intensive cultivation, leading to higher prices, averaging between $10 to $30 kg/. 305 This translates into higher retail prices for bio colorant-dyed textiles, which can deter cost-sensitive consumers, especially in competitive markets where price is a major purchasing criterion. Despite a growing niche market for eco-friendly products, where consumers are willing to pay a premium for sustainability, the higher costs of bio-colorants limit their appeal to a broader audience. Surveys suggest that while 60% of consumers express a preference for sustainable products, only 20% are willing to pay a significant premium for them, highlighting the gap between sustainability ideals and purchasing behavior. 306
Furthermore, consumer perceptions of natural dyes can be influenced by awareness and education about their benefits and limitations. While bio-colorants offer environmental advantages, such as lower energy consumption and reduced chemical pollution, these benefits are not always immediately apparent to consumers who prioritize color vibrancy and durability over ecological considerations. Marketing and educational efforts are crucial to increase consumer awareness of the environmental impact of textile dyes and the benefits of bio colorants. 307 However, effectively communicating these benefits and shifting consumer preferences toward more sustainable options remains a challenge, given the entrenched expectations for the performance and cost associated with synthetic dyes.
Future perspectives and opportunities
The integration of bioactive components into textiles presents significant opportunities in healthcare. These textiles can offer innovative solutions for wound healing, infection prevention, and drug delivery, providing more personalized and effective treatments. As technology advances, bioactive textiles could be used in smart clothing to monitor health conditions and release therapeutic agents based on real-time needs. Additionally, they open doors to eco-friendly alternatives by using natural bioactive substances. With increasing demand for wearable medical devices, bioactive textiles offer a versatile platform for future healthcare innovations. The growing interest in sustainability further enhances the potential for using plant-based bioactive components. Figure 7 illustrates the opportunities presented by textiles integrated with bioactive components. A wide range of medical uses, such as wound care, medication delivery and health monitoring, could benefit greatly from bioactive textiles. Nevertheless, their broad implementation is impeded by a number of knowledge gaps. The knowledge of how bioactive agents embedded in textiles fare in a variety of climates including those with varying degrees of humidity and temperature is limited. To tackle this, researchers should look into using advanced encapsulation techniques like liposomes or nano capsules to better protect bioactive compounds and allow for controlled release. In order to properly evaluate these textile’s efficacy and safety in clinical contexts, future research should focus on creating standardized evaluation protocols. Their rapid commercialization and credibility as trustworthy healthcare solutions depend on the results of real-world trials and the removal of regulatory obstacles. Figure 8 displays the potential benefits of textiles that incorporate bioactive components.
Opportunities of bioactive components integrated textiles.
Enhanced biocompatibility
Enhanced biocompatibility opportunities offered by bio-colorants compared to synthetic colorants in textile manufacturing represent a significant advantage in developing textiles that are safer and more suitable for applications in medical and wearable technologies. Bio-colorants generally exhibit higher biocompatibility due to their inherent non-toxic and non-allergenic properties. Recent advancements in the extraction and formulation of bio-colorants have further enhanced their suitability for sensitive applications, including medical textiles and wearable sensors, where direct skin contact is involved and high biocompatibility is crucial.
Innovative extraction techniques and biotechnological methods have significantly improved the purity and stability of bio colorants, making them more viable for applications requiring stringent safety standards. Advancements in enzymatic extraction and microbial fermentation have enabled the production of bio-colorants with reduced impurities and enhanced color fastness, addressing some of the traditional drawbacks associated with natural dyes. The use of these advanced methods has led to the development of bio-colorants that not only retain their natural safety benefits but also exhibit improved performance characteristics, such as better adherence to textile fibers and increased resistance to fading. Furthermore, bio-colorants offer potential therapeutic benefits, contributing to their enhanced biocompatibility profile. Certain natural dyes possess antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties, which can add functional value to textiles. For instance, dyes derived from plants like turmeric and neem have been shown to exhibit antimicrobial activity, making them ideal for use in medical dressings and hygiene products. 131 Such properties can help reduce the risk of infections and promote wound healing, providing an added layer of protection in medical textiles. Additionally, the antioxidant properties of some bio-colorants can protect skin from oxidative stress and environmental damage, making them suitable for wearable textiles that aim to provide health benefits beyond mere fabric coverage.
The integration of bio-colorants in textiles is also being explored for smart textiles and wearable electronics, where biocompatibility is essential for long-term wear. Recent studies have demonstrated the feasibility of incorporating bio-colorants into conductive inks and coatings for electronic textiles, leveraging their natural biocompatibility to create safer interfaces between electronic components and the human body. This approach not only enhances the safety of wearable devices but also aligns with the growing demand for sustainable and eco-friendly materials in the electronics industry. The use of bio-colorants in medical and wearable textiles is a promising alternative to synthetic counterparts due to their inherent biocompatibility.308,309 However, achieving consistent quality and performance at scale remains a significant challenge due to the variability of natural sources. 310 Future research should focus on employing synthetic biology and genetic engineering to create microorganisms capable of producing bio-colorants with high purity and specific tailored properties. Moreover, inconsistencies in biocompatibility testing methods across different regions must be addressed by establishing international standards. This will ensure the global acceptance and safe application of bio-colorants in sensitive areas such as medical dressings and wearable health monitors.
Sustainable manufacturing
Sustainable manufacturing opportunities with bio-colorants versus synthetic colorants in textile manufacturing underscore a pivotal shift toward greener production practices that emphasize resource efficiency, waste reduction, and environmental stewardship. Bio-colorants present significant opportunities for enhancing sustainability in textile dyeing processes by utilizing less energy and reducing reliance on fossil fuels. Recent advancements in the cultivation and extraction of natural dyes have optimized the use of agricultural residues and by-products, thus reduced waste and promoted a circular economy. Innovations in biotechnological methods, such as microbial fermentation and enzymatic synthesis, have enabled the production of bio-colorants with improved yield and quality, facilitating their integration into modern manufacturing processes. These methods have been shown to decrease energy consumption by up to 50%–60% compared to traditional synthetic dye production, which is highly dependent on petrochemical sources and energy-intensive processes. 311
The environmental benefits of bio-colorants are particularly pronounced in the context of water usage and pollution control. Traditional synthetic dyeing processes are notorious for their extensive water consumption and the generation of toxic effluents, with synthetic dyes accounting for up to 20% of global industrial water pollution and introducing over 70 harmful chemicals into water systems. 312 In contrast, bio-colorants often require less water for processing and contribute to a significant reduction in chemical oxygen demand (COD) in wastewater compared to their synthetic counterparts. This reduction in water pollution is further enhanced by the biodegradable nature of bio colorants, which minimizes the persistence of toxic residues in aquatic environments and soil, thereby reducing the long-term ecological footprint of textile manufacturing. Additionally, the utilization of bio-colorants aligns with the principles of green chemistry and sustainable agriculture. Recent research has focused on developing high-efficiency natural dye extraction techniques that utilize eco-friendly solvents and reduce reliance on hazardous chemicals. For instance, the use of supercritical CO₂ extraction and ionic liquids has emerged as a promising approach to obtaining high-purity bio-colorants with minimal environmental impact.236,237 These advancements not only improve the efficiency of natural dye production but also ensure that the extraction processes are safe and sustainable. Moreover, the integration of bio-colorants into textile manufacturing supports the diversification of agricultural practices, fostering the growth of dye-yielding crops and contributing to rural economic development and biodiversity conservation. However, the sustainable advantages of bio-colorants are tempered by challenges related to scalability and cost. The production of bio-colorants on a commercial scale often faces hurdles in achieving consistent supply chains and maintaining competitive pricing against synthetic dyes. Despite these challenges, ongoing advancements in bio-colorant formulation and application technologies are driving down costs and enhancing their performance characteristics. The development of hybrid dyeing systems, which combine bio-colorants with eco-friendly mordants and binders, has shown promise in achieving color fastness and durability comparable to synthetic dyes, thus broadening the applicability of bio-colorants in mainstream textile production. In response to the growing consumer demand for sustainable products, many textile manufacturers are increasingly adopting bio-colorants as part of their sustainability strategies. Initiatives such as the Zero Discharge of Hazardous Chemicals (ZDHC) program and the Sustainable Apparel Coalition’s Higg Index are promoting the adoption of bio-colorants by providing frameworks for assessing and improving the environmental impact of textile dyeing processes.
There are still obstacles to overcome on the road to more environmentally friendly textile production through sustainable manufacturing with bio-colorants. The widespread use of bio-colorants has been impeded by concerns about scalability and the high production costs. 313 To address these challenges and achieve industrial-grade performance in an environmentally sustainable way, it is recommended to develop hybrid dyeing systems that combine bio-colorants with synthetic additives. Optimization of bio-colorant production processes to decrease energy and resource inefficiencies should also be a priority for future research. In line with worldwide initiatives to attain sustainable industrial practices, incorporating renewable energy sources into supply chains has the potential to drastically lessen the environmental impact of these materials.
Technological advancements
The application of technological innovations, which will play an essential part in the development of such advancements, will bring about significant progress in the field of bio-colorant integrated textiles technology. As a result of research into biotechnology and synthetic biology, it is possible that novel bio-colorants with improved properties such as increased stability, vividness and bioactivity could be developed. It is possible that genetic engineering could be utilized in the context of textile applications, to create microorganisms that are capable of producing bio-colorants that possess specific characteristics that are desired. The incorporation of bio-colorants into textiles can also be improved thanks to developments in nanotechnology, which can also improve the durability and functionality of textiles. Moreover, nanotechnology can further improve the functionality of textiles. Through the utilization of methods such as microencapsulation, bio-colorants can be shielded from the deterioration that occurs in the environment. This ensures that their color and bioactivity will remain intact for a considerable amount of time. Furthermore, the development of smart textiles that are able to release bioactive compounds in response to specific triggers such as changes in temperature or pH has the potential to revolutionize medicine by providing therapeutic effects that are both targeted and controlled. This could be a game-changer for the medical field. Bioactive textiles and bio-colorants can only progress with new technological developments. The long-term effects of bio-colorants on smart textile sensors and electrical components remain little understood. 314 To make bio-colorants last longer and work better in textiles, we should use functional nanoparticles and other advances in nanotechnology. Also, bio-colorants can be preserved from environmental degradation using techniques like microencapsulation, which makes them bioactive and keeps their color for a long time. 315 To make sure that innovations in this area don’t bring new safety or ecological issues, it is important to study the environmental effects of new technology.
Market differentiation
Market differentiation opportunities between bio-colorants and synthetic colorants in textile manufacturing present a compelling case for leveraging sustainability and consumer preferences to create competitive advantages. Bio-colorants offer unique value propositions in an increasingly eco-conscious market, where consumers are more inclined toward sustainable and health-friendly products. Unlike synthetic colorants, which dominate the textile industry due to their cost-effectiveness, color consistency, and broad palette, bio-colorants distinguish themselves through their alignment with environmental and ethical values. The use of bio-colorants allows manufacturers to cater to a growing segment of environmentally aware consumers seeking textiles free from harmful chemicals and synthetic additives, which can enhance brand reputation and customer loyalty. 225 This differentiation is particularly significant in premium and niche markets, such as organic textiles, eco-fashion, and products targeted at sensitive skin demographics, where the demand for natural and sustainable dyes is expanding.
Recent advancements in the formulation and application of bio-colorants have further enhanced their market differentiation potential by improving their performance characteristics and expanding their applicability. Innovations such as the development of natural dye-based nano-pigments have resulted in bio-colorants with enhanced color fastness and stability, comparable to synthetic dyes, thus addressing some of the traditional limitations associated with natural dyes.247,248 Additionally, the introduction of bioengineered dyes, produced through microbial synthesis and genetic modification, has enabled the creation of bio-colorants with tailored properties, such as specific hues and enhanced durability, thereby increasing their competitiveness in broader market segments.207,231,249 Market differentiation through bio-colorants is also supported by their traceability and authenticity, attributes increasingly valued by consumers and retailers. The ability to verify the source and production methods of bio-colorants through certifications such as GOTS (Global Organic Textile Standard) and OEKO-TEX® aligns with the growing trend toward transparency and accountability in supply chains. These certifications provide assurance that the bio-colorants are produced sustainably and ethically, enhancing their appeal in markets prioritizing clean and traceable products. This contrasts with synthetic dyes, where issues related to pollution and worker safety have raised concerns about their long-term sustainability and ethical implications. Moreover, the unique esthetic qualities of bio colorants, such as their natural tones and the potential for creating distinct visual effects through traditional dyeing techniques, offer opportunities for product differentiation in the fashion and design industries. Brands leveraging these natural colorants can capitalize on their ability to create unique, one-of-a-kind pieces that resonate with consumers seeking individuality and authenticity in their purchases. The distinct hues and textures provided by bio colorants, often difficult to replicate with synthetic dyes, can be used to create exclusive product lines that stand out in a crowded market. Meeting the demands of consumers who are health- and sustainability-conscious presents a unique opportunity for market differentiation, and bio-colorants provide just that. The willingness to pay for bioactive textiles and products based on bio colorants has been the subject of few consumer behavior studies. 316 To better target certain demographics, like health care providers or environmentally conscious millennials, future studies should use AI-powered market analytics to develop and customize these goods. 317 Improving consumer trust should also involve prioritizing transparency through clear labeling and third-party certifications like GOTS or OEKO-TEX®. Products containing bio-colorants can strengthen their position in niche and premium markets, such as organic textiles and eco-fashion, by emphasizing these features.
Cross disciplinary collaboration
Cross-disciplinary collaboration opportunities in the context of bio-colorants versus synthetic colorants in textile manufacturing underscore the potential for significant innovation and problem-solving at the intersection of multiple scientific and industrial domains. Bio-colorants inherently benefit from a broad array of expertise spanning agronomy, microbiology, chemical engineering, and materials science. This multidisciplinary approach is crucial for overcoming the technical and commercial challenges associated with bio colorants, such as their variability, scalability, and cost. For instance, agronomists and botanists contribute to the cultivation and sustainable harvesting of dye-producing plants, while microbiologists and biotechnologists focus on optimizing microbial fermentation processes to produce consistent and high-yield natural colorants. Chemical engineers and materials scientists, on the other hand, are instrumental in developing novel extraction, stabilization, and application techniques that enhance the performance and integration of bio-colorants in textile manufacturing.
Recent advancements in bio-colorant technology highlight the efficacy of cross-disciplinary collaboration. For example, the integration of synthetic biology with traditional dyeing practices has led to the development of bioengineered microorganisms capable of producing bespoke colorants with tailored properties such as improved fastness and reduced environmental impact. Research teams from biology and engineering disciplines have successfully employed CRISPR and other genetic modification techniques to enhance the metabolic pathways of microorganisms like Escherichia coli and Saccharomyces cerevisiae, enabling them to synthesize a wider range of vibrant and durable colorants more efficiently. These advancements are complemented by innovations in nanotechnology, where materials scientists have developed nanoencapsulation methods that protect natural colorants from degradation during storage and application, thus improving their stability and usability in textile processes.
In the realm of synthetic colorants, cross-disciplinary collaboration also plays a pivotal role, albeit with a different focus. Chemists and chemical engineers continue to advance the synthesis of new azo and anthraquinone dyes that are more environmentally friendly and have lower toxicity. Collaborative efforts between environmental scientists and engineers have led to the development of advanced wastewater treatment systems that more effectively capture and neutralize harmful dye effluents, thereby mitigating the ecological impact of synthetic dye production. Moreover, computational chemists and data scientists contribute by using machine learning and artificial intelligence to predict the properties and performance of synthetic dyes, facilitating the design of colorants that are both efficient and less harmful to the environment. The integration of bio-colorants into textile manufacturing also benefits from collaborations between textile technologists and industrial designers. These experts work together to adapt dyeing machinery and processes to accommodate the unique properties of natural dyes, such as their affinity for certain fibers and their varying fastness characteristics. This collaboration has led to the creation of hybrid dyeing systems that combine bio-colorants with eco-friendly mordants, achieving color fastness and durability that rival synthetic dyes while maintaining environmental benefits. Moreover, partnerships between academic institutions and industry players are driving forward the adoption of bio-colorants through joint research initiatives, pilot projects, and the development of industry standards. These collaborations are critical for scaling up the production of bio-colorants and integrating them into existing supply chains, ensuring that the transition from synthetic to natural dyes is both feasible and economically viable. Bioactive textile and bio-colorant technology advancements require interdisciplinary cooperation. Concerns about scalability and safety necessitate more collaborative efforts between academics, businesses, and government agencies. 318 There has to be an effort to create open-access research centers where agronomists, biotechnologists, material scientists, and textile engineers can work together. These centers can work on improving the efficiency of bio-colorants and developing new methods for their application. It is also necessary to establish internationally consistent regulations for the marketing and usage of bioactive textiles and bio-colorants in different industries. By working together, we can make sure these technologies can be used in many different industries, from healthcare to fashion, and that they are scalable, sustainable, and impactful.
Conclusion
Innovative solutions in healthcare and medicine are provided by bio-colorant integrated textiles, which are a ground-breaking combination of biotechnology and textile engineering. These fabrics have intrinsic antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and UV-protective qualities since they are dyed naturally using microbes, plants, or other biological sources. Their eco-friendliness and possible medicinal uses make them very desirable for the creation of protective gear, wound dressings, and medical apparel. By encouraging sustainable and health-improving goods, these textiles have the potential to completely transform the healthcare and textile industries as research continues to progress. Textile bio-colorants can be derived from a range of naturally occurring sources, such as plants, fungi, algae, and certain bacteria. These sources offer a variety of vivid colors, potential health advantages, and a sustainable and environmentally responsible substitute for synthetic dyes. Natural dyes derived from plant, microbial, or marine sources are extracted and used in the creation of bio-colorant integrated textiles. Then, using environmentally friendly dyeing methods like immersion, coating, or printing, these bio-colorants are applied to fabrics. The usefulness and longevity of the bio-colorants in the textiles can be improved by cutting-edge techniques like nanotechnology and microencapsulation, guaranteeing long-term medical and therapeutic benefits. Textiles with integrated bio-colorants can be used in medical diagnostics to show changes in health status through color changes. They are also included in wound dressings to aid in healing and offer antibacterial defense. Maintaining bioactivity throughout processing, scaling up production, and guaranteeing color fastness are challenges in the integration of bio-colorants into textiles. Significant obstacles also exist in obtaining regulatory authorization for medical applications. With the development of biotechnology leading to the development of more stable and vivid bio colorants, the future looks bright. These fabrics may be used in antimicrobial therapies, wound healing, and smart textiles that track vital signs.
Footnotes
Acknowledgements
Technical supports from the “ZR Research Institute for Advanced Materials,” Sherpur-2100, Bangladesh are gratefully acknowledged.
Credit authorship contribution statement
Data availability statement
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
Declaration of conflicting interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Hazards,human or animal research
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