This study examined the impact of a required university club sports leader training, delivered between seasons, that incorporated Positive Coaching Alliance (PCA) principles and caring, task-involving (CTI) climate strategies. University club sports athletes (N = 192) completed surveys measuring their perceptions of the motivational climate (CTI, ego), goal orientation (task, ego), and outcomes of enjoyment, effort, sport commitment, and adherence to PCA principles. Results indicated athletes perceived a significantly higher CTI climate following training. Those reporting a higher CTI climate and task orientation reported greater enjoyment, effort, sport commitment, and adherence to PCA philosophy (e.g., respect for all aspects of their sport, wanting to make the team better, believing everyone strived to reach their maximum potential). This was an inaugural effort to connect PCA curriculum with CTI climate and extend training to club sports leaders, with strong potential for the training to foster club sports athletes’ personal growth and life skill development.
AdieJ. W.DudaJ. L.NtoumanisN. (2008). Achievement goals, competition appraisals, and the psychological and emotional welfare of sport participants. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 30(3), 302–322. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.30.3.302
2.
AlbertE.PetrieT. A.MooreE. W. G. (2019). The relationship of motivational climates, mindsets, and goal orientations to grit in male adolescent soccer players. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 19(2), 265–278. https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2019.1655775
3.
BarnettN. P.SmollF. L.SmithR. E. (1992). Effects of enhancing coach-athlete relationships on youth sport attrition. The Sport Psychologist, 6(2), 111–127. https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.6.2.111
4.
BiddleS.WangC. J.KavussanuM.SprayC. (2003). Correlates of achievement goal orientations in physical activity: A systematic review of research. European Journal of Sport Science, 3(5), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/17461390300074206
5.
ClaunchJ. L.FryM. D. (2016). Native American football coaches’ experience of a motivational climate collaboration with sport psychology researchers. International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching, 11(4), 482–495. https://doi.org/10.1177/1747954116655047
6.
CotterillS. T.FransenK. (2022). Athlete leadership development within teams: Current understanding and future directions. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, Article 820745. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.820745
7.
CronbachL. J. (1951). Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests. Psychometrika, 16, 297–334. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02310555
8.
D'AlonzoK. T. (2010). Getting started in CBPR: Lessons in building community partnerships for new researchers. Nursing Inquiry, 17(4), 282–288. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1440-1800.2010.00491.x
9.
DudaJ. L. (1989). Relationship between task and ego orientation and the perceived purpose of sport among high school athletes. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 11(3), 318–335. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.11.3.318
10.
DudaJ. L. (2013). The conceptual and empirical foundations of Empowering Coaching™: Setting the stage for the PAPA project. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 11(4), 311–318. https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2013.839414
11.
DudaJ. L.NichollsJ. G. (1992). Dimensions of achievement motivation in schoolwork and sport. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84(3), 290–299. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.84.3.290
12.
DudaJ. L.OlsonL. K.TemplinT. J. (1991). The relationship of task and ego orientation to sportsmanship attitudes and the perceived legitimacy of injurious acts. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 62(1), 79–87. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.1991.10608775
13.
DudaJ. L.QuestedE.HaugE.SamdalO.WoldB.BalaguerI.CruzJ. (2013). Promoting adolescent health through an intervention aimed at improving the quality of their participation in physical activity (PAPA): Background to the project and main trial protocol. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 11(4), 319–327. https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2013.839413
14.
DuganJ. P.TurmanN. T.TorrezM. A. (2015). When recreation is more than just sport: Advancing the leadership development of students in intramurals and club sports. Recreational Sports Journal, 39(1), 37–48. https://doi.org/10.1123/rsj.2015-0008
15.
EimeR. M.HarveyJ. T.CharityM. J.PayneW. R. (2016). Population levels of sport participation: Implications for sport policy. BMC Public Health, 16, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-016-3463-5
16.
FentonS. A. M.DudaJ. L.BarrettT. (2016). Optimising physical activity engagement during youth sport: A self-determination theory approach. Journal of Sports Sciences, 34(19), 1874–1884. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2016.1142104
FryM.Reid-PinsonC.IwasakiS.ThompsonJ. (2019). Bridging theory, research, and practice in youth sports: Sport psychology’s partnership with positive coaching alliance to enhance youth sport. Journal of Sport Psychology in Action, 10(3), 170–179. https://doi.org/10.1080/21520704.2019.1649336
19.
FryM. D.Gano-OverwayL.GuivernauM.KimM.-S.NewtonM. (2020). A coach's guide to maximizing the youth sport experience: Work hard, be kind. Routledge.
20.
FryM. D.Gano-OverwayL. A. (2010). Exploring the contribution of the caring climate to the youth sport experience. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 22(3), 294–304. https://doi.org/10.1080/10413201003776352
21.
FryM. D.GuivernauM.KimM.NewtonM.Gano-OverwayL. A.MagyarT. M. (2012). Youth perceptions of a caring climate, emotional regulation, and psychological well-being. Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology, 1(1), 44–57. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026706
22.
FryM. D.MooreE. W. G. (2019). Motivation in sport: Theory and application. In AnshelM. H.PetrieT. A.SteinfeldtJ. A. (Eds.), APA Handbook of sport and exercise psychology: Vol. 1. Sport psychology (pp. 263–282). American Psychological Association.
23.
Gano-OverwayL.FryM. (2024). Caring climate. In Social Psychology in Sport (2nd ed., pp. 157–172). Human Kinetics.
24.
GouldD.CarsonS. (2008). Life skills development through sport: Current status and future directions. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 1(1), 58–78. https://doi.org/10.1080/17509840701834573
JohnstonL. D.O’MalleyP. M.BachmanJ. G.SchulenbergJ. E. (2013). Monitoring the Future national survey results on drug use, 1975-2012. Volume II: College students and adults ages 19-50. Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan. https://www.monitoringthefuture.org/pubs/monographs/mtf-vol2_2012.pdf
27.
KampfS.HainesS. G.GambinoS. (2018). The impact of new or renovated collegiate recreation centers on recruitment and retention. Recreational Sports Journal, 42(1), 18–32. https://doi.org/10.1123/rsj.2017-0022
KulavicK.HultquistC. N.McLesterJ. R. (2013). A comparison of motivational factors and barriers to physical activity among traditional versus nontraditional college students. Journal of American College Health, 61(2), 60–66. https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2012.756296
30.
LiZ.ChalipL.RodgersE. B. D. (2025). Examining the economic value of collegiate club sports to the university. Recreational Sports Journal, 49(1), 3–15. https://doi.org/10.1123/rsj.2024-0032
31.
LifschutzL. (2019). Examining what variables lead to improved outcomes for club sports participants. Recreational Sports Journal, 43(2), 117–125. https://doi.org/10.1177/1558866119889903
32.
LifschutzL. (2021). Measuring the efficacy of a club sports new participant orientation. Recreational Sports Journal, 45(2), 94–103. https://doi.org/10.1177/15588661211016437
Lower-HoppeL. M.BeattieM. A.WrayD. E.BaileyR. L.NewmanT. J.FarrellA. (2020). The relationships between sport club activities and university and member attachment. Recreational Sports Journal, 44(1), 5–14. https://doi.org/10.1177/1558866120904037
35.
Lower-HoppeL. M.ForresterS. A.ElkinsD. J.BeggsB. A. (2018). Optimizing health and wellness outcomes of collegiate recreational sports participation. International Journal of Sport Management, 19(1), 44–56. https://doi.org/10.1177/1558866120904037
36.
McAuleyE.DuncanT.TammenV. V. (1989). Psychometric properties of the intrinsic motivation inventory in a competitive sport setting: A confirmatory factor analysis. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 60(1), 48–58. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.1989.10607413
MillerB. W.RobertsG. C.OmmundsenY. (2005). Effect of perceived motivational climate on moral functioning, team moral atmosphere perceptions, and the legitimacy of intentionally injurious acts among competitive youth football players. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 6(4), 461–477. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2004.02.004
NewtonM.DudaJ. L.YinZ. (2000). Examination of the psychometric properties of the perceived motivational climate in sport questionnaire-2 in a sample of female athletes. Journal of Sports Sciences, 18(4), 275–290. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640410050018378
41.
NewtonM.FryM.WatsonD.Gano-OverwayL.KimM. S.MagyarM.GuivernauM. (2007). Psychometric properties of the Caring Climate Scale in a physical activity setting. Revista de Psicología del Deporte, 16(1), 67–84. https://doi.org/10.1080/026404100365018
42.
NichollsJ. G. (1984). Achievement motivation: Conceptions of ability, subjective experience, task choice, and performance. Psychological Review, 91(3), 328–346. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.91.3.328
43.
NichollsJ. G. (1989). The competitive ethos and democratic education. Harvard University Press.
44.
Pedler, M. L., Willis, R., & Nieuwoudt, J. E. (2022). A sense of belonging at university: Student retention, motivation and enjoyment. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 46(3), 397–408. https://doi.org/10.1080/0309877X.2021.1955844
RobertsG. C. (2012). Motivation in sport and exercise from an achievement goal theory perspective: After 30 years, where are we? In RobertsG. C. (Ed.), Advances in motivation in sport and exercise (pp. 1–50). Human Kinetics.
47.
RobertsT.MillerT.WellsJ. (2003). Sports clubs: A resource guide. NIRSA.
48.
ScanlanT.CarpenterP.SchmidtG.SimonsJ.KeelerB. (1993). An introduction to the sport commitment model. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 15(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.15.1.1
49.
SeifrizJ. J.DudaJ. L.ChiL. (1992). The relationship of perceived motivational climate to intrinsic motivation and beliefs about success in basketball. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 14(4), 375–385. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.14.4.375
50.
SmithR. E.SmollF. L. (1990). Self-esteem and children's reactions to youth sport coaching behaviors: A field study of self-enhancement processes. Developmental Psychology, 26(6), 987–993. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.26.6.987
51.
SmithR. E.SmollF. L.BarnettN. P. (1995). Reduction of children's sport performance anxiety through social support and stress-reduction training for coaches. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 16(1), 125–142. https://doi.org/10.1016/0193-3973(95)90018-7
52.
SmithR. E.SmollF. L.CurtisB. (1979). Coach effectiveness training: A cognitive-behavioral approach to enhancing relationship skills in youth sport coaches. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 1(1), 59–75. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsp.1.1.59
53.
SmollF. L.SmithR. E.BarnettN. P.EverettJ. J. (1993). Enhancement of children's self-esteem through social support training for youth sport coaches. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78(4), 602–610. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.78.4.602
54.
SmollF. L.SmithR. E.CummingS. P. (2007). Effects of a motivational climate intervention for coaches on changes in young athletes’ achievement goal orientations. Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, 1(1), 23–46. https://doi.org/10.1123/jcsp.1.1.23
55.
StrandeK. M.FryM. D.LongH. (2025). The relationship between college students’ perceptions of their physical activity class climate and their feelings of thriving and mental well-being. Recreational Sports Journal, 49(1), 59–72. https://doi.org/10.1177/15588661241308811
56.
StratasA.KarlisG.GravelleF.LagacéM. (2022). Factors influencing commitment to maintaining long-term exercise in adults over the age of 50. Loisir et Société/Society and Leisure, 45(3), 626–643. https://doi.org/10.1080/07053436.2022.2073796
57.
ThompsonJ. (1995). Positive coaching: Building character and self-esteem through sports. Balance Sports Publishing.
58.
ThompsonJ. (2003). Positive coaching tools for honoring the game and developing winners in sports and life. Positive Coaching Alliance.
59.
ThompsonJ. (2010). The power of double goal coaching. Balance Sports Publishing.
60.
ThompsonJ. (2011). Elevating your game. Balance Sports Publishing, LLC.
61.
VasoldK. L.DeereS. J.PivarnikJ. M. (2019). Club and intramural sports participation and college student academic success. Recreational Sports Journal, 43(1), 55–66. https://doi.org/10.1177/1558866119840085
62.
WallingM. D.DudaJ. L.ChiL. (1993). The perceived motivational climate in sport questionnaire: Construct and predictive validity. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 15(2), 172–183. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.15.2.172
63.
WebbE.ForresterS. (2017). Peer motivational climate and its relationship with positive and negative affect in collegiate intramural sports. International Journal of Sport Management, 17(4), 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsm.2015-0006
64.
WeissM. R.KimmelL. A.SmithA. L. (2001). Determinants of sport commitment among junior tennis players: Enjoyment as a mediating variable. Pediatric Exercise Science, 13(2), 131–144. https://doi.org/10.1123/pes.13.2.131
65.
WilsonK. E.MillarP. (2021). Intramural sport participation: An examination of participant benefits, service quality, program satisfaction, and student retention. Recreational Sports Journal, 45(2), 149–160. https://doi.org/10.1123/rsj.2020-0026
66.
WilsonK. E. S. (2022). A review of campus recreation and sport-based experience literature in higher education contexts. Recreational Sports Journal, 46(2), 219–232. https://doi.org/10.1177/15588661221125469
