Fear,Knowledge,and Efficacy Beliefs Differentially Predict the Frequency of Digital Rectal Examination Versus Prostate Specific Antigen Screening in Ethnically Diverse Samples of Older Men

Abstract

Emotional and cognitive characteristics have been studied in the context of women’s cancer screening but have received scant attention in the study of men’s screening behavior. Researchers know little about how such factors interact to predict screening or whether digital rectal examination (DRE) and prostate specific antigen (PSA) screens are predicted by the same characteristics. This study examines the relevance of emotional and cognitive characteristics to DRE and PSA screening among 180 U.S.-born African American, U.S.- born European American, and immigrant Jamaican men. The study identifies the expected effects in which fear is negatively related and efficacy beliefs positively related to DRE and PSA screening. Greater efficacy and (marginally) knowledge appear to “offset” the negative impact of fear on screening, and fear appears particularly relevant to DRE frequency. Results are discussed in terms of their implications for the development of health belief and self-regulatory models in the context of prostate cancer screening among minority men.

Keywords

prostate cancer cancer screening health belief model ethnic subpopulations African American Jamaican fear efficacy knowledge Caribbean

References

American Cancer Society . (2003a). Cancer facts and figures for African Americans 2003-2004. Atlanta, GA .

American Cancer Society . (2003b). Cancer facts and figures 2003. Atlanta, GA .

American Cancer Society . (2004). Cancer prevention and early detection: Facts and figures 2004. Atlanta, GA .

American Cancer Society . (2005). Cancer facts and figures for African Americans, 2005-2006. Atlanta, GA .

American Cancer Society . (2006). Cancer facts and figures 2006. Atlanta, GA .

Barber, K. R. , Shaw, R. E. , Folts, M. , Taylor, D. K. , Ryan, A. , Hughes, M. , et al. (1998). Differences between African American and Caucasian men participating in a community-based prostate cancer screening program . Journal of Community Health, 23, 441-451 .

Beebe-Dimmer, J. L. , Wood, D. J. J. , Gruber, S. B. , Chilson, D. M. , Zuhlke, K. A. , Claeys, G. B. , et al. (2004). Risk perception and concern among brothers of men with prostate carcinoma . Cancer, 100, 1537-1544 .

Bobo, J. K. , Dean, D. , Stovall, C. , Mendez, M. , & Caplan, L. S. (1999). Factors that may discourage annual mammography among low-income women with access to free mammograms: A study using multi-ethnic, multiracial focus groups . Psychological Reports, 85, 405-416 .

Boyd, M. , Weinrich, S. , Weinrich, M. , & Norton, A. (2001). Obstacles to prostate cancer screening in African American men . Journal of Black Nurses Association, 12, 1-5 .

10.

Brice, J. (1992). West-Indian families. In M. McGoldrick , J. K. Pearce , & J. Giordano (Eds.), Ethnicity and family therapy (pp. 123-133). New York: Guilford .

11.

Brown, C. T. , O’Flynn, E. , Van der Meulen, J. , Newman, S. , Mundy, A. R. , & Emberton, M. (2003). The fear of prostate cancer in men with lower urinary tract symptoms: Should symptomatic men be screened ? BJU International, 91, 30-32 .

12.

Bunker, C. H. , Patrick, A. L. , Konety, B. R. , Dhir, R. , Brufsky, A. M. , Vivas, C. A. , et al. (2002). High prevalence of screening-detected prostate cancer among Afro-Caribbeans: The Tobago Prostate Cancer Survey . Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention, 11, 726-729 .

13.

Bunker, C. H. , Patrick, A. L. , Miljkovic-Gacic, I. , Konety, B. R. , Belle, A. , Richard, J. R. , et al. (2004). Prostate cancer screening parameters in a high-risk African-Caribbean population . Urology, 63, 737-741 .

14.

Calsoyas, I. , & Stratton, M. S. (2004). Prostate cancer screening: A racial dichotomy . Archives of Internal Medicine, 164, 1830-1832 .

15.

Cameron, L. D. , & Leventhal, H. (1995). Vulnerability beliefs, symptom experiences and the processing of health threat information: A self-regulatory perspective . Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 25, 1859-1883 .

16.

Chan, E. C. Y. , Vernon, S. W. , O’Donnell, F. T. , Ahn, C. , Greisinger, A. , & Aga, D. W. (2003). Informed consent for cancer screening with prostate-specific antigen: How well are men getting the message ? American Journal of Public Health, 93, 779-785 .

17.

Conlisk, E. A. , Lengerich, E. J. , Demark-Wahnefried, W. , Schildkraut, J. M. , & Aldrich, T. E. (1999). Prostate cancer: Demographic and behavioral correlates of stage at diagnosis among Blacks and Whites in North Carolina . Urology, 53, 1194-1199 .

18.

Consedine, N. S. , Krivoshekova, Y. S. , & Harris, C. R. (in press). Bodily embarrassment and judgment concern as separable factors in the measurement of medical embarrassment: Psychometric development and links to treatment-seeking outcomes . British Journal of Health Psychology.

19.

Consedine, N. S. , & Magai, C. (2002). The uncharted waters of emotion: Ethnicity, trait emotion and emotion expression in older adults . Journal of Cross-Cultural Gerontology, 17, 71-100 .

20.

Consedine, N. S. , Magai, C. , Horton, D. , Neugut, A. I. , & Gillespie, M. (2005). Health belief model factors in mammography screening: Testing for interactions among sub-populations of Caribbean women . Ethnicity and Disease, 15, 444-452 .

21.

Consedine, N. S. , Magai, C. , Krivoshekova, Y. S. , Ryzewicz, L. , & Neugut, A. I. (2004). Fear, anxiety, worry, and breast cancer screening behavior: A critical review . Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention, 13, 501-510 .

22.

Consedine, N. S. , Magai, C. , Kudadjie-Gyamfi, E. K. , Kaluk Longfellow, J. , Ungar, T. M. , & King, A. R. (2006). Stress versus discrete negative emotions in the prediction of physical complaints: Does predictive utility vary across ethnic groups . Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 12, 541-557 .

23.

Consedine, N. S. , Magai, C. , & Neugut, A. I. (2004). The contribution of emotional characteristics to breast cancer screening among women from six ethnic groups . Preventive Medicine, 38, 64-77 .

24.

Consedine, N. S. , Morgenstern, A. H. , Kudadjie-Gyamfi, E. , Magai, C. , & Neugut, A. I. (2006). Prostate cancer screening behavior in men from seven ethnic groups: The fear factor . Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention, 15, 228-237 .

25.

Cormier, L. , Reid, K. , Kwan, L. , & Litwin, M. S. (2003). Screening behavior in brothers and sons of men with prostate cancer . Journal of Urology, 169, 1715-1719 .

26.

Crawford, E. D. (2003). Epidemiology of prostate cancer . Urology, 62, 3-12 .

27.

Dale, W. , Bilir, P. , Han, M. , & Meltzer, D. (2005). The role of anxiety in prostate carcinoma . Cancer, 104, 467-478 .

28.

Demark-Wahnefried, W. , Strigo, T. , Catoe, K. , Conaway, M. , Brunetti, M. , Rimer, B. K. , et al. (1995). Knowledge, beliefs, and prior screening behavior among Blacks and Whites reporting for prostate cancer screening . Urology, 46, 346-351 .

29.

de Nooijer, J. , Lechner, L. , & de Vries, H. (2001). A qualitative study on detecting cancer symptoms and seeking medical help: An application of Andersen’s model of total patient delay . Patient Education & Counseling, 42, 145-157 .

30.

Dreyfuss, J. (1993, May 23). The invisible immigrants: Haitians in America are industrious, upwardly-mobile and vastly misunderstood . New York Times Magazine, pp. 20-21, 80-82 .

31.

Eisen, S. A. , Waterman, B. , Sugg Skinner, C. , Scherrer, J. F. , Romeis, J. C. , Bucholz, K. , et al. (1999). Sociodemographic and health status characteristics associated with prostate cancer screening in a national cohort of middle-aged male veterans . Urology, 53, 516-522 .

32.

Farkas, A. , Marcella, S. , & Rhoades, G. G. (2000). Ethnic and racial differences in prostate cancer incidence and mortality . Ethnicity & Disease, 10, 69-75 .

33.

Farkas, A. , Schneider, D. , Perrotti, M. , Cummings, K. B. , & Ward, W. S. (1998). National trends in the epidemiology of prostate cancer, 1973 to 1994: Evidence for the effectiveness of prostate-specific antigen screening . Urology, 52, 448-449 .

34.

Gelfand, D. E. , Parzuchowski, J. , Cort, M. , & Powell, I. J. (1995). Digital rectal examinations and prostate cancer screening: Attitudes of African American men . Oncology Nursing Forum, 22, 1253-1255 .

35.

Gilligan, T. , Wang, P. S. , Levin, R. , Kantoff, P. W. , & Avorn, J. (2004). Racial differences in screening for prostate cancer in the elderly . Archives of Internal Medicine, 164, 1858-1864 .

36.

Glover, F. E. , Coffey, D. S. , Douglas, L. L. , Cadogan, M. , Russell, H. , Tulloch, T. , et al. (1998). The epidemiology of prostate cancer in Jamaica . Journal of Urology, 159, 1984-1986 .

37.

Hall, H. I. , Van Den Eeden, S. K. , Tolsma, D. D. , Rardin, K. , Thompson, T. , Sinclair, A. H. , et al. (2004). Testing for prostate and colorectal cancer: Comparison of self-report and medical record audit . Preventive Medicine, 39, 27-35 .

38.

Hay, J. L. , Buckley, T. R. , & Ostroff, J. S. (2005). The role of cancer worry in cancer screening: A theoretical and empirical review of the literature . Psychooncology, 14, 517-534 .

39.

Hoffman, R. M. , Gilliland, F. D. , Eley, J. W. , Harlan, L. C. , Stephenson, R. A. , Stanford, J. L. , et al. (2001). Racial and ethnic differences in advanced-stage prostate cancer: The Prostate Cancer Outcomes Study . Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 93, 388-395 .

40.

Jemal, A. , Murray, T. , Samuels, A. , Ghafoor, A. , Ward, E. , & Thun, M. J. (2003). Cancer statistics, 2003 . CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians, 53, 5-26 .

41.

Jordan, T. R. , Price, J. H. , King, K. A. , Masyk, T. , & Bedell, A. W. (1999). The validity of male patients’ self reports regarding prostate cancer screening . Preventive Medicine, 28, 297-303 .

42.

Kleier, J. A. (2003). Prostate cancer in Black men of African-Caribbean descent . Journal of Cultural Diversity, 10, 56-61 .

43.

Kunkel, E. J. S. , Meyer, B. , Daskalakis, C. , Cocroft, J. , Jennings-Dozier, K. , & Meyers, R. E. (2004). Behaviors used by men to protect themselves against prostate cancer . Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers & Prevention, 13, 78-86 .

44.

Leventhal, H. , Diefenbach, M. , & Leventhal, E. A. (1992). Illness cognition: Using common sense to understand treatment adherence and affect cognition interactions . Cognitive Therapy and Research, 16, 143-163 .

45.

Magai, C. , Consedine, N. S. , Conway, F. , Neugut, A. I. , & Culver, C. (2004). Diversity matters: Unique populations of older women and breast cancer screening . Cancer, 100, 2300-2307 .

46.

Magnus, M. (2004). Prostate cancer knowledge among multiethnic Black men . Journal of the National Medical Association, 96, 650-656 .

47.

Merrill, R. M. (2001). Demographics and health-related factors of men receiving prostate-specific antigen screening in Utah . Preventive Medicine, 33, 646-652 .

48.

Morales, L. S. , Rogowski, J. , Freedman, V. A. , Wickstrom, S. L. , Adams, J. L. , & Escarce, J. J. (2004). Use of preventive services by men enrolled in Medicare Plus Choice plans . American Journal of Public Health, 94, 796-802 .

49.

Moul, J. W. (2000). Screening for prostate cancer in African Americans . Current Urology Reports, 1, 57-64 .

50.

Myers, R. E. , Hyslop, T. , Jennings-Dozier, K. , Wolf, T. A. , Burgh, D. Y. , Diehl, J. A. , et al. (2000). Intention to be tested for prostate cancer risk among African-American men . Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers & Prevention, 9, 1323-1328 .

51.

Myers, R. E. , Hyslop, T. , Wolf, T. A. , Burgh, D. , Kunkel, E. J. S. , Oyesanmi, O. A. , et al. (2000). African-American men and intention to adhere to recommended follow-up for an abnormal prostate cancer early detection examination result . Urology, 55, 716-720 .

52.

Myers, R. E. , Wolf, T. A. , McKee, L. , McGrory, G. , Burgh, D. Y. , Nelson, G. T. , et al. (1996). Factors associated with intention to undergo annual prostate cancer screening among African American men in Philadelphia . Cancer, 78, 471-479 .

53.

Ndubuisi, S. C. , Kofie, V. Y. , Andoh, J. Y. , & Schwartz, E. M. (1995). Black-White differences in the stage at presentation of prostate cancer in the District of Columbia . Urology, 46, 71-77 .

54.

New York City Department of Planning . (2004). The newest New Yorkers, 2000: Immigrant New York in the new millennium (No. NYC DCP #04-10). New York: New York City Department of City Planning, Population Division .

55.

Nijs, H. G. T. , Essink-Bot, M. L. , DeKoning, H. J. , Kirkels, W. J. , & Schroder, F. H. (2000). Why do men refuse or attend population-based screening for prostate cancer ? Journal of Public Health Medicine, 22, 312-316 .

56.

Orton, M. , Fitzpatrick, R. , Fuller, A. , Mant, D. , Mlynek, C. , & Thorogood, M. (1991). Factors affecting women’s response to an invitation to attend for a second breast cancer screening examination . British Journal of General Practice, 41, 320-323 .

57.

Polednak, A. P. , & Flannery, J. T. (1992). Black versus White racial differences in clinical stage at diagnosis and treatment of prostate cancer in Connecticut . Cancer, 70, 2152-2158 .

58.

Powell, I. J. (1994). Early detection issues of prostate cancer in African American men . In Vivo, 8, 451-452 .

59.

Roetzheim, R. G. , Pal, N. , Tennant, C. , Voti, L. , Ayanian, J. Z. , Schwabe, A. , et al. (1999). Effects of health insurance and race on early detection of cancer . Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 91, 1409-1415 .

60.

Roumier, X. , Azzouzi, R. , Valeri, A. , Guillemin, F. , Fournier, G. , Cussenot, O. , et al. (2004). Adherence to an annual PSA screening program over 3 years for brothers and sons of men with prostate cancer . European Urology, 45, 280-286 .

61.

Smith, R. A. , Cokkinides, V. , & Eyre, H. J. (2004). American Cancer Society guidelines for the early detection of cancer, 2004 . CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians, 54, 41-52 .

62.

Steele, C. B. , Miller, D. S. , Maylahn, C. , Uhler, R. J. , & Baker, C. T. (2000). Knowledge, attitudes, and screening practices among older men regarding prostate cancer . American Journal of Public Health, 90, 1595-1600 .

63.

Targonski, P. V. , Guinan, P. , & Phillips, C. W. (1991). Prostate cancer: The stage disadvantage in the Black male . Journal of the National Medical Association, 83, 1094-1096 .

64.

Thompson, B. , Montano, D. E. , Mahloch, J. , Mullen, M. , & Taylor, V. (1997). Attitudes and beliefs towards mammography among women using an urban public hospital . Journal of Health Care for the Poor & Underserved, 8, 186-201 .

65.

Thompson, I. , Tangen, C. , Tolcher, A. , Crawford, E. , Eisenberger, M. , & Moinpour, C. (2001). Association of African-American ethnic background with survival in men with metastatic prostate cancer . Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 93, 219-225 .

66.

Tingen, M. S. , Weinrich, S. P. , Heydt, D. D. , Boyd, M. D. , & Weinrich, M. C. (1998). Perceived benefits: A predictor of participation in prostate cancer screening . Cancer Nursing, 21, 349-357 .

67.

U.S. Census Bureau . (2000). United States census. Retrieved July 25, 2006, from http://www.census.gov/population/cen2000/stp-159/stp159-jamaica.pdf

68.

Vadaparampil, S. T. , Jacobson, P. B. , Kash, K. , Watson, I. S. , Saloup, R. , & Pow-Sang, J. (2004). Factors predicting prostate specific antigen testing among first-degree relatives of prostate cancer patients . Cancer, Epidemiology, Biomarkers, & Prevention, 13, 753-758 .

69.

Ward, E. , Jemal, A. , Cokkinides, V. , Singh, G. K. , Cardinez, C. , Ghafoor, A. , et al. (2004). Cancer disparities by race/ethnicity and socioeconomic status . CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians, 54, 78-93 .

70.

Weinrich, S. P. , Reynolds, W. A. , Tingen, M. S. , & Starr, C. R. (2000). Barriers to prostate cancer screening . Cancer Nursing, 23, 117-121 .

71.

Weinrich, S. P. , Weinrich, M. C. , Boyd, M. D. , & Atkinson, C. (1998). The impact of prostate cancer knowledge on cancer screening . Oncology Nursing Forum, 25, 527-534 .

72.

Weller, D. , Pinnock, C. , Silagy, C. , Hiller, J. E. , & Marshall, V. R. (1998). Prostate cancer testing in SA men: Influence of sociodemographic factors, health beliefs and LUTS . Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health, 22, 400-402 .

73.

Wilkinson, S. , List, M. , Sinner, M. , Dai, L. , & Chodak, G. (2003). Educating African-American men about prostate cancer: Impact on awareness and knowledge . Urology, 61, 308-313 .

74.

Witte, K. (1992). Putting the fear back into fear appeals: The extended parallel process model . Communication Monographs, 59, 329-349 .

75.

Witte, K. , & Morrison, K. (2000). Examining/repressionsensitization on individuals’ reaction to fear appeals . Western Journal of Communications, 64, 1-27 .