Disability,Gender Identity,and Sexual Orientation: An Intersectional Analysis Assessing Perceived Threat of Hate Crimes

Abstract

The current study examines the intersections between disability, gender identity, and sexual orientation in relation to the perceived threat of hate crimes against these identities. Results based on a purposive sample of 1824 adults recruited from Amazon’s Mechanical Turk show that persons with a disability perceive greater threat of hate crimes. When considering disability with gender identity and sexual orientation, perceived threat is exacerbated when persons with a disability also identify as gender and sexual minorities. Findings suggest that the perceived threat of hate crimes can be compounded when persons with a disability also belong to other marginalized groups.

Keywords

hate crime perceived threat of victimization intersectionality disability gender identity sexual minority

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Abdullah

Salleh

M. N. M.

Sakip

S. R. M.

(2012). Fear of crime in gated and non-gated residential areas. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 35, 63–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.02.063

Bills

M. A.

Vaughn

M. S.

(2023). A contemporary review of hate crime legislation in the United States. Criminal Justice Policy Review, 34(2), 115–139. https://doi.org/10.1177/08874034221112847

Brunton-Smith

Sturgis

(2011). Do neighborhoods generate fear of crime? An empirical test using the British crime survey. Criminology, 49(2), 331–369. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.2011.00228.x

Buhrmester

M. D.

Talaifar

Gosling

S. D.

(2018). An evaluation of Amazon’s Mechanical Turk, its rapid rise, and its effective use. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 13(2), 149–154. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691617706516

Chakraborti

Garland

(Eds.). (2015). Responding to hate crime: The case for connecting policy and research. Policy Press.

Chmielewski

Kucker

S. C.

(2020). An MTurk crisis? Shifts in data quality and the impact on study results. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 11(4), 464–473. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550619875149

Coleman

Sykes

Walker

(2013). Crime and disabled people. Baseline statistical analysis of measures for the formal legal inquiry into disability-related harassment (Research Report 90). Equality and Human Rights Commission.

Colliver

Silvestri

(2022). The role of (in) visibility in hate crime targeting transgender people. Criminology and Criminal Justice, 22(2), 235–253. https://doi.org/10.1177/1748895820930747

Coppock

McClellan

O. A.

(2019). Validating the demographic, political, psychological, and experimental results obtained from a new source of online survey respondents. Research & Politics, 6(1), 44–64. https://doi.org/10.1177/2053168018822174

10.

Cossman

J. S.

Porter

J. R.

Rader

N. E.

(2016). Examining the effects of health in explaining fear of crime: A multi-dimensional and multi-level analysis. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 41(3), 565–582. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-015-9310-x

11.

Cossman

J. S.

Rader

N. E.

(2011). Fear of crime and personal vulnerability: Examining self-reported health. Sociological Spectrum, 31(2), 141–162. https://doi.org/10.1080/02732173.2011.541339

12.

Cramer

E. P.

Plummer

S. B.

(2009). People of Color with Disabilities: Intersectionality as a Framework for Analyzing Intimate Partner Violence in Social, Historical, and Political Contexts. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 18(2), 162–181. https://doi.org/10.1080/10926770802675635

13.

Crenshaw

(1991). Mapping the margins: Intersectionality, identity politics, and violence against women of color. Stanford Law Review, 43(6), 1241–1300. https://doi.org/10.2307/1229039

14.

Cross

Lee

(2022). Exploring fear of crime for those targeted by romance fraud. Victims and Offenders, 17(5), 735–755. https://doi.org/10.1080/15564886.2021.2018080

15.

Daigle

L. E.

Hancock

Chafin

T. C.

Azimi

(2022). US and Canadian college students’ fear of crime: A comparative investigation of fear of crime and its correlates. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 37(15–16), NP12901–NP12932. https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605211001477

16.

Donovan

Clayton

Macdonald

S. J.

(2019). New directions in hate reporting research: Agency, heterogeneity and relationality. Sociological Research Online, 24(2), 185–202. https://doi.org/10.1177/1360780418798848

17.

Else-Quest

N. M.

Hyde

J. S.

(2016). Intersectionality in quantitative psychological research: I. Theoretical and epistemological issues. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 40(2), 155–170. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684316629797

18.

Farrall

Gadd

(2004). Research note: The frequency of the fear of crime. British Journal of Criminology, 44(1), 127–132. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjc/44.1.127

19.

FBI . (2022). Uniform crime report hate crime statistics, 2021. Retrieved from. https://www.justice.gov/crs/highlights/2021-hate-crime-statistics

20.

Federal Bureau of Investigation . (nd). Hate crime statistics. Federal Bureau of Investigation. https://www.fbi.gov/services/cjis/ucr/hate-crime

21.

Harrell

(2017). Crime against persons with disabilities, 2009-2015-statistical tables. US Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics.

22.

Harrell

(2021). Crime against persons with disabilities, 2009–2019–statistical Tables. US Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics.

23.

Hayes

B. E.

Maher

C. A.

(2023). A systematic review of lifestyle-routine activity theory in the context of direct-contact sexual victimization the context of direct-contact sexual victimization. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 25(1), 369, 392. https://doi.org/10.1177/15248380231153864

24.

Healy

J. C.

(2020). It spreads like a creeping disease’: Experiences of victims of disability hate crimes in austerity Britain. Disability & Society, 35(2), 176–200. https://doi.org/10.1080/09687599.2019.1624151

25.

Holley

L. C.

Thomas

D. S.

(2019). Mental illness discrimination and support experienced by people who are of color and/or LGB: Considering intersecting identities. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 89(1), 16–26. https://doi.org/10.1037/ort0000360

26.

Horner-Johnson

(2021). Disability, intersectionality, and inequity: Life at the margins. In Lollar

D. J.

Horner-Johnson

Froehlich-Grobe

(Eds.), Public health perspectives on disability (pp. 91–105). Springer.

27.

LaViolette

(2014). Sexual orientation, gender identity and the refugee determination process in Canada. Journal of Research in Gender Studies, 4(2), 68–123.

28.

Lee

(2007). Inventing fear of crime: Criminology and the politics of anxiety. Willan.

29.

Lee

Jackson

Ellis

J. R.

(2020). Functional and dysfunctional fear of crime in inner Sydney: Findings from the quantitative component of a mixed-methods study. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology, 53(3), 311–332. https://doi.org/10.1177/0004865820911994

30.

Linder

Grimes

Williams

B. M.

Lacy

M. C.

Parker

(2020). What do we know about campus sexual violence? A content analysis of 10 years of research. The Review of Higher Education, 43(4), 1017–1040. https://doi.org/10.1353/rhe.2020.0029

31.

Macdonald

S. J.

Donovan

Clayton

(2021). I may be left with no choice but to end my torment’: Disability and intersectionalities of hate crime. Disability & Society, 38, 127–147. https://doi.org/10.1080/09687599.2021.1928480

32.

May

D. C.

Rader

N. E.

Goodrum

(2010). A gendered assessment of the ‘‘threat of victimization’’: Examining gender differences in fear of crime, perceived risk, avoidance, and defensive behaviors. Criminal Justice Review, 35(2), 159–182. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734016809349166

33.

McConnell

E. A.

Janulis

Phillips

2nd Truong

Birkett

(2018). Multiple minority stress and LGBT community resilience among sexual minority men. Psychology of sexual orientation and gender diversity, 5(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1037/sgd0000265

34.

Mellberg

Chataway

M. L.

Ball

M. J.

Miles-Johnson

(2022). Psychological distance and fear of crime: Towards a new understanding of risk perception formation. Journal of Criminology, 55(3), 377–399. https://doi.org/10.1177/26338076221105899

35.

Mellis

A. M.

Bickel

W. K.

(2020). Mechanical Turk data collection in addiction research: Utility, concerns and best practices. Addiction, 115(10), 1960–1968. https://doi.org/10.1111/add.15032

36.

Meyer

I. H.

(2003). Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: Conceptual issues and research evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 129(5), 674–697. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.129.5.674

37.

Meyer

J. K.

(1982). The theory of gender identity disorders. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 30(2), 381–418. https://doi.org/10.1177/000306518203000204

38.

Miller

R.A.

Nachman

B.R.

Wynn

R.D.

(2020). “I Feel Like They are all Interconnected”: Understanding the Identity Management Narratives of Autistic LGBTQ College Students. College Student Affairs Journal 38(1), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1353/csj.2020.0000

39.

Mize

T. D.

Doan

Long

J. S.

(2019). A general framework for comparing predictions and marginal effects across models. Sociological Methodology, 49(1), 152–189. https://doi.org/10.1177/0081175019852763

40.

Nagoshi

J. L.

Brzuzy

S. I.

Terrell

H. K.

(2012). Deconstructing the complex perceptions of gender roles, gender identity, and sexual orientation among transgender individuals. Feminism & Psychology, 22(4), 405–422. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959353512461929

41.

Perry

(2015). All of a sudden, there are Muslims’: Visibilities and islamophobic violence in Canada. International journal for crime, justice and social democracy, 4(3), 4–15. https://doi.org/10.5204/ijcjsd.v4i3.235

42.

Perry

Alvi

(2012). ‘We are all vulnerable’ the in terrorem effects of hate crimes. International Review of Victimology, 18(1), 57–71. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269758011422475

43.

Powers

R. A.

Hayes

B. E.

(2022). Victim and third-party reporting of violent victimization to the police in incidents involving victims with disabilities. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 61(2), 268–302. https://doi.org/10.1177/00224278221131493

44.

Pyo

Hayes

B. E.

(2023a). Effects of question methods in assessing fear of hate crimes. Crime & Delinquency. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11292-023-09591-9

45.

Pyo

Hayes

B. E.

(2023b). Assessment of functional and dysfunctional perceived threat of hate crimes among persons with and without disability. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 38(23–24), 12135–12160. https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605231191236

46.

Rader

N. E.

(2004). The threat of victimization: A theoretical reconceptualization of fear of crime. Sociological Spectrum, 24(6), 689–704. https://doi.org/10.1080/02732170490467936

47.

Rogers

S. A.

Isom

D. A.

Rader

N. E.

(2023). Fear of victimization among LGBQ, non-binary, and transgender college and university students in the United States. Victims and Offenders, 18(1), 169–193. https://doi.org/10.1080/15564886.2022.2149649

48.

Sandil

Robinson

Brewster

M. E.

Wong

Geiger

(2015). Negotiating multiple marginalizations: Experiences of South asian LGBQ individuals. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 21(1), 76–88. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037070

49.

Sellwood

Raghavendra

Walker

(2022). Facilitators and barriers to developing romantic and sexual relationships: lived experiences of people with complex communication needs. Augmentative and Alternative. Communication, 38(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/07434618.2022.2046852

50.

Sherry

(2010). Disability hate crimes: Does anyone really hate disabled people? Ashgate.

51.

Skogan

W. G.

Maxfield

M. G.

(1981). Coping with crime: Individual and neighborhood reactions. Sage.

52.

Szymanski

D. M.

Henrichs-Beck

(2014). Exploring sexual minority women’s experiences of external and internalized heterosexism and sexism and their links to coping and distress. Sex Roles, 70(1–2), 28–42. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-013-0329-5

53.

Thompson

A.J.

Pickett

J.T.

(2020). Are Relational Inferences from Crowdsourced and Opt-in Samples Generalizable? Comparing Criminal Justice Attitudes in the GSS and Five Online Samples. J Quant Criminol, 36, 907–932. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10940-019-09436-7

54.

Wallace

(2021). Criminology, criminal justice, and 30 years of the Americans with Disabilities Act: Where is the research from our field. Criminologist, 46(2), 1–6.

55.

Weesie

(1999). Seemingly unrelated estimation and the cluster-adjusted sandwich estimator. Stata Technical Bulletin, 9, 231–248.

56.

Wenger

M. R.

Lantz

Gallardo

(2022). The role of hate crime victimization, fear of victimization, and vicarious victimization in COVID-19-related depression. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 49(12), 1746–1762. https://doi.org/10.1177/00938548221104738

57.

Williams

(2006). Generalized ordered logit/partial proportional odds models for ordinal dependent variables. The Stata Journal, 6(1), 58–82. https://doi.org/10.1177/1536867x0600600104

58.

Wiseman

Watson

(2022). “Because I’ve got a learning disability, they don’t take me seriously:” violence, wellbeing, and devaluing people with learning disabilities me seriously:” violence, wellbeing, and devaluing people with learning disabilities. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 37(13–14), NP10912–NP10937. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260521990828

Supplementary Material

Please find the following supplemental material available below.

For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.

For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.

0.00 MB

0.17 MB