Although bystanders can play an important role in combating intimate partner violence (IPV), they also experience unique barriers and challenges that may prevent them from involvement. While anonymous reporting could potentially address some of these barriers, this form of intervention has rarely been studied. Using a thematic analysis of case files (N = 34 reports), this study investigates bystanders’ reasons to report suspicions of IPV anonymously to a domestic violence hotline. Results indicate that anonymity allowed bystanders to balance the desire to protect the victim(s) from harm with the fear of potential consequences for themselves and/or their relationship with the victim(s).
AielloM. F. (2019). Should I call for help? Examining the influences of situational factors and bystander characteristics on reporting likelihood. Journal of School Violence, 18(2), 163–175. https://doi.org/10.1080/15388220.2018.1428195
2.
BanyardV. L.RizzoA. J.EdwardsK. M. (2020). Community actionists: Understanding adult bystanders to sexual and domestic violence prevention in communities. Psychology of Violence, 10(5), 531–541. https://doi.org/10.1037/vio0000281
3.
BaumeisterR. F.VohsK. D.FunderD. C. (2007). Psychology as the science of self-reports and finger movements: Whatever happened to actual behavior?Perspectives on Psychological Science, 2(4), 396–403. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6916.2007.00051.x
4.
BerkowitzR.Sowan-BasheerW.WinstokZ. (2022). Bystanders’ behavioral responses to intimate partner violence: The role of gender, culture, and education. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 32(5), 651–668. https://doi.org/10.1080/10926771.2022.2146556
5.
BoethiusS.ÅkerströmM. (2020). Revealing hidden realities: Disclosing domestic abuse to informal others. Nordic Journal of Criminology, 21(2), 186–202. https://doi.org/10.1080/2578983x.2020.1787725
CaseyE.StorerH. L.HerrenkohlT. I. (2018). Mapping a continuum of adolescent helping and bystander behavior within the context of dating violence and bullying. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 88(3), 335–345. https://doi.org/10.1037/ort0000245
8.
CasperD. M.WitteT.StanfieldM. H. (2021). “A person I cared about was involved”: Exploring bystander motivation to help in incidents of potential sexual assault and dating violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36(9-10), 4406–4430. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260518791232
CookA.ReynaldD. (2016). Guardianship against sexual offenses: Exploring the role of gender in intervention. International Criminal Justice Review, 26(2), 98–114. https://doi.org/10.1177/1057567716639094
12.
CoomansA.Kühling-RomeroD.van DeurenS.van DijkM.van de WeijerS.BloklandA.EichelsheimV. (2023). Stay home, stay safe? The impact of the COVID-19 restrictions on the prevalence, nature, and type of reporter of domestic violence in the Netherlands.Journal of Family Violence, 38(3), 1545–1561. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-022-00473-8
13.
DaviesC. D.CraskeM. G. (2015). Psychophysiological responses to unpredictable threat: Effects of cue and temporal unpredictability. Emotion, 15(2), 195–200. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000038
14.
DebnamK. J.MauerV. (2021). Who, when, how, and why bystanders intervene in physical and psychological teen dating violence. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 22(1), 54–67. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838018806505
15.
EmersonR. M. (2015). Everyday troubles: The micro-politics of interpersonal conflict. University of Chicago Press.
16.
EvansM. A.FederG. S. (2016). Help‐seeking amongst women survivors of domestic violence: A qualitative study of pathways towards formal and informal support. Health Expectations, 19(1), 62–73. https://doi.org/10.1111/hex.12330
17.
FryeV.PaulM. M.ToddM. J.LewisV.Cupid and Jane ColemanM.SalmonC.O’CampoP.O’CampoP. (2012). Informal social control of intimate partner violence against women: Results from a concept mapping study of urban neighborhoods. Journal of Community Psychology, 40(7), 828–844. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.21493
18.
GoodkindJ. R.GillumT. L.BybeeD. I.SullivanC. M. (2003). The impact of family and friends’ reactions on the well-being of women with abusive partners. Violence Against Women, 9(3), 347–373. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801202250083
19.
GraciaE.GarcíaF.LilaM. (2009). Public responses to intimate partner violence against women: The influence of perceived severity and personal responsibility. Spanish Journal of Psychology, 12(2), 648–656. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1138741600002018
20.
GregoryA. C. (2017). The edge to him was really, really nasty’: Abusive tactics used against informal supporters of domestic violence survivors. Journal of Gender-Based Violence, 1(1), 61–77. https://doi.org/10.1332/239868017x14896674831469
21.
GregoryA. C.WilliamsonE.FederG. (2017). The impact on informal supporters of domestic violence survivors: A systematic literature review. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 18(5), 562–580. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838016641919
22.
GriffinA.WorthingtonR. (2023). To stay silent or to blow the whistle? Bystander’s intervening acts when witnessing intimate partner violence (IPV). Journal of Aggression, Conflict and Peace Research, 16(2), 112–127. https://doi.org/10.1108/jacpr-03-2023-0788
23.
HambyS.WeberM. C.GrychJ.BanyardV. L. (2016). What difference do bystanders make? The association of victim outcomes with bystander involvement in a community sample. Psychology of Violence, 6(1), 91–102. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0039073
24.
HardyS. (2019). Layers of resistance: Understanding decision-making processes in relation to crime reporting. International Review of Victimology, 25(3), 302–319. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269758019827686
25.
HoefnagelsC.ZwikkerM. (2001). The bystander dilemma and child abuse: Extending the Latane and Darley model to domestic violence. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 31(6), 1158–1183. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2001.tb02668.x
26.
HoxmeierJ. C.McMahonS. (2021). Victim/survivor perception of bystander helpfulness in dating abuse situations. Journal of College Student Development, 62(4), 493–498. https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.2021.0050
27.
HoxmeierJ. C.O’ConnorJ.McMahonS. (2019). ‘She wasn’t resisting’: Students’ barriers to prosocial intervention as bystanders to sexual assault risk situations. Violence Against Women, 25(4), 485–505. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801218790697
28.
JerolmackC.KhanS. (2014). Talk is cheap: Ethnography and the attitudinal fallacy. Sociological Methods & Research, 43(2), 178–209. https://doi.org/10.1177/0049124114523396
29.
JohanssonE.CareyP. (2016). Detecting fraud: The role of the anonymous reporting channel. Journal of Business Ethics, 139(2), 391–409. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-015-2673-6
30.
KaplanS. E.SchultzJ. J. (2007). Intentions to report questionable acts: An examination of the influence of anonymous reporting channel, internal audit quality, and setting. Journal of Business Ethics, 71(2), 109–124. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-006-0021-6
31.
KuskoffE.ParsellC. (2023). Bystander intervention in intimate partner violence: A scoping review of experiences and outcomes. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/15248380231195886
32.
LattaR. E. (2008). Struggling to define my role: The experience of network members who intervened in intimate partner violence. Boston College.
33.
LattaR. E.GoodmanL. A. (2011). Intervening in partner violence against women: A grounded theory exploration of informal network members’ experiences. The Counseling Psychologist, 39(7), 973–1023. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000011398504
LowryP. B.MoodyG. D.GallettaD. F.VanceA. (2013). The drivers in the use of online whistle-blowing reporting systems. Journal of Management Information Systems, 30(1), 153–190. https://doi.org/10.2753/mis0742-1222300105
36.
MainwaringC.GabbertF.ScottA. J. (2023). A systematic review exploring variables related to bystander intervention in sexual violence contexts. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 24(3), 1727–1742. https://doi.org/10.1177/15248380221079660
37.
McDonaldP.CharlesworthS.GrahamT. (2016). Action or inaction: Bystander intervention in workplace sexual harassment. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 27(5), 548–566. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2015.1023331
38.
McMahonS. (2024). How helpful is bystander intervention? Perspectives of dating and sexual violence survivors. Violence Against Women, 30(2), 575–597. https://doi.org/10.1177/10778012221117596
39.
McMahonS.BanyardV. L. (2012). When can I help? A conceptual framework for the prevention of sexual violence through bystander intervention. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 13(1), 3–14. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838011426015
40.
MillerJ. (2002). The strengths and limits of ‘doing gender’ for understanding street crime. Theoretical Criminology, 6(4), 433–460. https://doi.org/10.1177/136248060200600403
41.
Montalvo‐LiendoN. (2009). Cross‐cultural factors in disclosure of intimate partner violence: An integrated review. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 65(1), 20–34. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2648.2008.04850.x
42.
MooreL.McAuliffeE. (2012). To report or not to report? Why some nurses are reluctant to whistleblow. Clinical Governance: An International Journal, 17(4), 332–342. https://doi.org/10.1108/14777271211273215
43.
MoschellaE. A.BanyardV. L. (2020). Reactions to actions: Exploring how types of bystander action are linked to positive and negative consequences. The Journal of Primary Prevention, 41(6), 585–602. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10935-020-00618-9
44.
NicksaS. C. (2014). Bystander’s willingness to report theft, physical assault, and sexual assault: The impact of gender, anonymity, and relationship with the offender. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 29(2), 217–236. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260513505146
45.
PagliaroS.PacilliM. G.BaldryA. C. (2020). Bystanders’ reactions to intimate partner violence: An experimental approach. European Review of Social Psychology, 31(1), 149–182. https://doi.org/10.1080/10463283.2020.1776031
46.
PalermoT.BleckJ.PetermanA. (2014). Tip of the iceberg: Reporting and gender-based violence in developing countries. American Journal of Epidemiology, 179(5), 602–612. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwt295
47.
PalmerJ. E.NicksaS. C.McMahonS. (2018). Does who you know affect how you act? The impact of relationships on bystander intervention in interpersonal violence situations. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 33(17), 2623–2642. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260516628292
48.
ParkS.KimS. H. (2023). A systematic review and meta-analysis of bystander intervention programs for intimate partner violence and sexual assault. Psychology of Violence, 13(2), 93–106. https://doi.org/10.1037/vio0000456
49.
PetersenR.MoraccoK. E.GoldsteinK. M.ClarkK. A. (2005). Moving beyond disclosure: Women's perspectives on barriers and motivators to seeking assistance for intimate partner violence. Women & Health, 40(3), 63–76. https://doi.org/10.1300/j013v40n03_05
50.
PrenticeD. A.CarranzaE. (2002). What women and men should be, shouldn't be, are allowed to be, and don't have to be: The contents of prescriptive gender stereotypes. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 26(4), 269–281. https://doi.org/10.1111/1471-6402.t01-1-00066
51.
RabaiottiE.SmithR. (2023). The power of anonymity: An exploratory study into the role of Crimestoppers in reporting and investigating crime in England and Wales. Police Journal. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/0032258X231171029
52.
RaderN. E. (2023). Teaching fear: How we learn to fear crime and why it matters. Temple University Press.
53.
RigerS.RajaS.CamachoJ. (2002). The radiating impact of intimate partner violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 17(2), 184–205. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260502017002005
54.
RobinsonS. R.CasianoA.Elias-LambertN. (2022). “Is it my responsibility?” A qualitative review of university students’ perspectives on bystander behavior. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 23(1), 117–131. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838020933829
55.
SylaskaK. M.WaltersA. S. (2014). Testing the extent of the gender trap: College students’ perceptions of and reactions to intimate partner violence. Sex Roles, 70(3-4), 134–145. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-014-0344-1
56.
TaketA.O’DohertyL.ValpiedJ.HegartyK. (2014). What do Australian women experiencing intimate partner abuse want from family and friends?Qualitative Health Research, 24(7), 983–996. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732314540054
57.
TaylorE.BanyardV.GrychJ.HambyS. (2019). Not all behind closed doors: Examining bystander involvement in intimate partner violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 34(18), 3915–3935. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260516673629
58.
TolsmaJ.BlaauwJ.Te GrotenhuisM. (2012). When do people report crime to the police? Results from a factorial survey design in The Netherlands, 2010. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 8(2), 117–134. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11292-011-9138-4
Van BaakC.EichelsheimV.WeeninkD.LindegaardM. R. (2024). Why do bystanders report intimate partner violence? Insights into real-life reasoning from those who actually intervened. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 39(13-14), 3207–3238. https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605241227156
WalkerA.FentonR. A.SnowdonL. C.ParryB.BartonE. R.DonovanC.BellisM. A. (2021). Bystander experiences of domestic violence and abuse during the COVID-19 pandemic.Public Health Wales NHS Trust.
63.
WeitzmanA.CowanS.WalshK. (2020). Bystander interventions on behalf of sexual assault and intimate partner violence victims. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 35(7-8), 1694–1718. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260517696873
WolfM. E.LyU.HobartM. A.KernicM. A. (2003). Barriers to seeking police help for intimate partner violence. Journal of Family Violence, 18(2), 121–129. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1022893231951
66.
WongR. Y. M.CheungC. M.XiaoB.ThatcherJ. B. (2021). Standing up or standing by: Understanding bystanders’ proactive reporting responses to social media harassment. Information Systems Research, 32(2), 561–581. https://doi.org/10.1287/isre.2020.0983
XieM.LynchJ. P. (2017). The effects of arrest, reporting to the police, and victim services on intimate partner violence. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 54(3), 338–378. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022427816678035
