Although research on sexual assault and its postassault consequences has grown, information on knowledge of postassault experiences for African American women remains limited. A large sample of African American women (N = 495) were surveyed about their sexual assault experiences, attributions of blame, disclosure, and social reactions received following assault. Age, educational attainment, and sexual assault severity were examined in relation to postassault factors. Exploratory analyses were conducted to identify potential differences in sexual assault experiences and postassault outcomes for African American women. Although African American women reported similar sexual assault characteristics, their postassault reactions and experiences differed according to their age and educational attainment.
Acierno, R., Gray, M., Best, C., Resnick, H., Kilpatrick, D., Saunders, B., et al. (2001). Rape and physical violence: Comparison of assault characteristics in older and younger adults in the national women's study. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 14, 685-695.
2.
Ahrens, C.E., & Campbell, R. (2000). Assisting rape victims as they recover from rape: The impact on friends. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 15, 959-986.
3.
Arata, C.M. (1999). Coping with rape: The roles of prior sexual abuse and attributions of blame. Journal of Interpersonal Violence , 14, 62-78.
4.
Bachman, R., Dillaway, H., & Lachs, M.S. (1998). Violence against the elderly. Research on Aging, 20, 183-198.
5.
Bachman, R., & Saltzman, L.E. (1995). Bureau of Justice statistics special report: National Crime Victimization Survey: Violence against women: Estimates from the redesigned survey (NCJ-154348). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.
6.
Breitenbecher, K.H., & Scarce M. (1999). A longitudinal evaluation of the effectiveness of a sexual assault education program. Journal of Interpersonal Violence14, 459-478.
7.
Burt, M.R. (1980). Cultural myths and support for rape. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38, 217-230.
8.
Campbell, R., Wasco, S.M., Ahrens, C.E., Sefl, T., & Barnes, H.E. (2001). Preventing the “second rape”: Rape survivors' experiences with community service providers. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 16, 1239-1259.
9.
Catalano, S.M. (2004). Bureau of Justice Statistics National Crime Victimization Survey: Criminal victimization 2004. Retrieved December 28, 2005, from http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/pub/pdf/cv04.pdf
10.
Clinton, C. (1994). “With a whip in his hand”: Rape, memory, and African American women. In G. Fabre & R. O'Meally (Eds.), History and memory in African American culture (pp. 205-218). New York: Oxford University Press.
11.
Collins, P.H. (1986). Learning from the outsider within: The sociological significance of Black feminist thought. Social Problems, 6(33), 14-32.
12.
Collins, P.H. (2000). Black feminist thought: Knowledge consciousness and the politics of empowerment. New York: Routledge.
13.
Collins, P.H. (2004). Black sexual politics: African Americans, gender, and the new racism. New York: Routledge .
14.
Davis, A. (1984). Women, culture, politics. New York: Vintage Books.
15.
Donovan, R. & Williams, M. (2002). Living at the intersection: The effects of racism and sexism on Black rape survivors. Women & Therapy, 25, 95-105.
16.
Estrich, S. (1987). Real rape: How the legal system victimizes women who say no. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
17.
Filipas, H.H., & Ullman S.E. (2001). Social reactions to sexual assault victims from various support sources. Violence & Victims, 16, 673-692.
18.
Foley, L.A., Evancic, C., Karnik, K., King, J. & Parks, A. (1995). Date rape: Effects of race of assailant and victim and gender of subjects on perception. Journal of Black Psychology , 21, 6-18.
19.
Frazier, P.A. (1990). Victim attributions and post-rape trauma. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 298-304.
20.
Frazier, P.A. (1991). Self-blame as a mediator of postrape depressive symptoms. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 10, 47-57.
21.
Frazier, P.A. (2000). The role of attributions and perceived control in recovery from rape. Journal of Personal and Interpersonal Loss, 5, 203-225.
22.
Frazier, P.A. (2002). Rape Attribution Questionnaire. Unpublished manuscript , University of Minnesota, Minneapolis .
23.
Frazier, P.A. (2003). Perceived control and distress following sexual assault: A longitudinal test of a new model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 1257-1269.
24.
Frese, B., Moya, M., & Megías, J.L. (2004). Social perception of rape: How rape myth acceptance modulates the influence of situational factors. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 19, 143-161.
25.
Getman, K.A. (1984). Sexual control in the slaveholding South: The implementation and maintenance of a racial caste system. Harvard Women's Law Journal, 7, 115-152.
26.
Giacopassi, D.J., & Dull, T.R. (1986). Gender and racial differences in the acceptance of rape myths within a college population. Sex Roles, 15, 3-75.
27.
Gidycz, C.A., Coble, C., Latham, L., & Layman, M. (1993). Sexual assault experiences in adulthood and prior victimization experiences. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 17, 151-168.
28.
Gidycz, C.A., Layman, M.J., Rich, C.L., Crothers, M., Gylys, J., Matorin, A., et al. (2001). An evaluation of an acquaintance rape prevention program. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 16, 1120-1138.
29.
Golding, J.M., Siegel, J.M., Sorenson, S.B., Burnam, M.A., & Stein, J.A. (1989). Social support sources following sexual assault . Journal of Community Psychology, 17, 92-107.
30.
Hine, D.C. (1989). Rape and the inner lives of Black women in the Middle West. Signs, 14, 913-920.
31.
hooks, b. (1981). Ain't I a woman: Black women and feminism. Boston: South End Press.
32.
Jackson, P.B., & Mustillo, S. (2001). I am woman: The impact of social identities on African American women's mental health. Women & Health , 32, 33-59.
33.
Janoff-Bulman, R. (1979). Characterological versus behavioral self-blame: Inquiries into depression and rape. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 1798-1809.
34.
Jones, J. (1985). Labor of love, labor of sorrow: Black women, work, and the family from slavery to the present. New York: Basic Books.
35.
Kahn, A.S., Jackson, J., Kully, C., Badger, K., & Halvorsen, J. (2003). Calling it rape: Differences in experiences of women who do or do not label their sexual assault as rape. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 27, 233-242.
36.
Kalra, M., Wood, E., Desmarais, S., Verbergand, N., & Senn, C.Y. (1998). Exploring negative dating experiences and beliefs about rape among younger and older women. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 27, 145-153.
37.
Klaw, E.L., Lonsway, K.A., Berg, D.R., Waldo, C.R., Kothari, C., Mazurek, C., et al. (2005). Challenging rape culture: Awareness, emotion and action through campus acquaintance rape education. Women & Therapy, 28, 47-63.
38.
Koss, M.P., Figuerdo, A.J., & Prince R.J. (2002). Cognitive mediation of rape's mental, physical, and social health impact: Test of four models in cross-sectional data. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70, 926-941.
39.
Koss, M.P., Gidycz, C.A., & Wisniewski, N. (1987). The scope of rape: Incidence and prevalence of sexual aggression and victimization in a national sample of higher education students. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 55, 162-170.
40.
Lefley, H.P., Scott, C.S., Liabre, M., & Hicks, D. (1993). Cultural beliefs about rape and victims response in three ethnic groups. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry , 63, 623-632.
41.
Liang, B., Goodman, L., Tummala-Narra, P., & Weintraub, S. (2005). A theoretical framework for understanding help-seeking processes among survivors of intimate partner violence. American Journal of Community Psychology, 36, 71-84.
42.
Meyer, C.B., & Taylor, S. (1986). Adjustment to rape. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 1226-1234.
43.
Monson, C.M., Langhinrichsen-Rohling, J., & Binderup, T. (2000). Does “no” really mean “no” after you say “yes”?Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 15, 1156-1174.
44.
Muram, D., Miller, K., & Cutler, A. (1992). Sexual assault of the elderly victim. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 7, 70-76.
45.
Nagel, B., Matsuo, H., McIntyre, K.P., & Morrison, N. (2005). Attitudes towards victims of rape: Effects of gender, race, religion, and social class. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 20, 725-737.
46.
Neville, H.A., & Pugh, A.O. (1997). General and culture-specific factors influencing African American women's reporting patterns and perceived social support following sexual assault. Violence Against Women, 3, 361-381.
47.
Noel, J.A. (1980). The lower-income, Black woman rape victim: The case for hospital-based services. Journal of Alternative Human Services, 1, 17-20.
48.
Rennison, C.M., & Rand, M.R. (2002). Bureau of Justice Statistics National Crime Victimization Survey: Criminal Victimization 2002. Retrieved June 21, 2006 , from http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/pub/pdf/cv02.pdf
49.
Resick, P.A. (1993). The psychological impact of rape. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 8, 22-255.
50.
Sochting, I., Fairbrother, N., & Koch, W.J. (2004). Sexual assault of women: Prevention efforts and risk factors. Violence Against Women, 10, 73-93.
51.
Sorenson, S.B., & White, J.W. (1992). Adult sexual assault: Overview of research. Journal of Social Issues, 48, 1-8.
52.
Starzynski, L.L., Ullman, S.Filipas, H.H., & Townsend, S.M. (2005). Correlates of women's sexual assault disclosure to informal and formal support sources. Violence & Victims, 20, 417-432.
53.
Tjaden, P., & Thoennes, N. (2000). Full report of the prevalence, incidence, and consequences of violence against women: Findings from the National Violence Against Women Survey (NCJ 183781). Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.
54.
Todd, J.L., & Worell, J. (2000). Resilience in low-income, employed, African American women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 24, 119-128.
55.
Ullman, S.E. (1996a). Correlates and consequences of adult sexual assault disclosure. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 11, 554-571.
56.
Ullman, S.E. (1996b). Social reactions, coping strategies, and self-blame attributions in adjustment to sexual assault. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 20, 505-526.
57.
Ullman, S.E. (1999). Social support and recovery from sexual assault: A review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 4, 343-358.
58.
Ullman, S.E. (2000). Psychometric characteristics of the Social Reactions Questionnaire: A measure of reactions to sexual assault victims. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 24, 257-271.
59.
Ullman, S.E., & Brecklin, L.R. (2002). Sexual assault history, PTSD, and mental health service seeking in a national sample of women. Journal of Community Psychology, 30, 261-279.
60.
Ullman, S.E., & Filipas, H.H. (2001a). Correlates of formal and informal support seeking in sexual assault victims. Journal of Interpersonal Violence , 16, 1028-1047.
61.
Ullman, S.E., & Filipas, H.H. (2001b). Predictors of PTSD symptom severity and social reactions in sexual assault victims. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 14, 369-389.
62.
Washington, P.A. (2001). Disclosure patterns of Black female sexual assault survivors. Violence Against Women, 7, 1254-1283.
63.
West, C.M. (2004). Mammy, Jezebel, and Sapphire: Developing an “oppositional gaze” toward the images of Black women. In J. C. Chrisler, C. Golden, & P. Rozee (Eds.), Lectures on the psychology of women (3rd ed., pp. 237-252). New York: McGraw-Hill.
64.
White, A.A., Strube, M.J., & Fisher, S. (1998). A Black feminist model of rape myth acceptance . Psychology of Women Quarterly, 22, 157-175.
65.
Willis, C.E. (1992). The effect of sex role stereotype, victim and defendant race, and prior relationship on rape culpability attributions. Sex Roles, 26, 213-226.
66.
Wyatt, G.E. (1992). The sociocultural context of African American and White American women's rape. Journal of Social Issues , 48(1), 77-91.
67.
Wyatt, G.E., Notgrass, C.M., & Newcomb, M. (1990). Internal and external mediators of women's rape experiences. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 14, 153-176.
