This study compared weight trajectories in infants breastfed for at least 1 year, with or without formula supplementation.
Study Design:
A retrospective cohort of 252 infants followed in well-baby clinics. All infants were breastfed ≥12 months and received complementary foods at 4–6 months. Of these, 174 received no formula, and 78 received daily formula supplementation. Anthropometric data were collected from birth to 5 years of age.
Results:
Among males, those breastfed without formula had significantly lower body weight between 13 and 18 months compared with those receiving formula (10.20 kg vs. 10.97 kg, p < 0.001). From 19 months onward, no significant weight differences were observed and trajectories converged through 5 years.
Conclusion:
Prolonged breastfeeding in male infants is associated with lower weight in early toddlerhood; however, differences resolve by age two. These findings suggest early variations may represent physiological patterns. Further controlled studies are needed.
MeekJY, NobleL, Section on Breastfeeding. Policy statement: Breastfeeding and the use of human milk. Pediatrics2022;150(1):e2022057988.
2.
AgostoniC, BraeggerC, DecsiT, ESPGHAN Committee on Nutrition. et al.; Breast-feeding: A commentary by the ESPGHAN committee on nutrition. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr2009;49(1):112–125.
3.
DeweyKG, PeersonJM, BrownKH, et al.Growth of breast-fed infants deviates from current reference data: A pooled analysis of US, Canadian, and European data sets. Pediatrics1995;96(3):497–503.
4.
DeweyKG, HeinigMJ, NommsenLA, et al.Growth of breast-fed and formula-fed infants from 0 to 18 months: The DARLING study. Pediatrics1992;89(6):1035–1041.
5.
de OnisM. WHO child growth standards based on length/height, weight and age. Acta Paediatr2006;95(suppl450):76–85.
6.
MattisonSM, WanderK, HindeK. Breastfeeding over two years is associated with longer birth intervals, but not measures of growth or health, among children in Kilimanjaro, TZ. Am J Hum Biol2015;27(6):807–815.
7.
WrightMJ, BentleyME, MendezMA, et al.The interactive association of dietary diversity scores and breast-feeding status with weight and length in Filipino infants aged 6–24 months. Public Health Nutr2015;18(10):1762–1773.
8.
Grummer-StrawnLM. Does prolonged breastfeeding impair child growth? A critical review. Pediatrics1993;91(4):766–771.
9.
FawziWW, HerreraMG, NestelP, et al.A longitudinal study of prolonged breastfeeding in relation to child undernutrition. Int J Epidemiol1998;27(2):255–260.
10.
CaulfieldLE, BentleyME, AhmedS. Is prolonged breastfeeding associated with malnutrition? Evidence from nineteen demographic and health surveys. Int J Epidemiol1996;25(4):693–703.
11.
LiR, DeeD, LiCM, et al.Breastfeeding and risk of infections at 6 years. Pediatrics2014;134(Suppl 1):S13–S20.
12.
ShehadehN, AslihN, ShihabS, et al.Human milk beyond one year postpartum: Lower content of protein, calcium, and saturated very long-chain fatty acids. J Pediatr2006;148(1):122–124.
13.
MandelD, LubetzkyR, DollbergS, et al.Fat and energy contents of expressed human breast milk in prolonged lactation. Pediatrics2005;116(3):e432–e435.
14.
Czosnykowska-ŁukackaM, Królak-OlejnikB, Orczyk-PawiłowiczM. Breast milk macronutrient components in prolonged lactation. Nutrients2018;10(12):1893.
15.
NevilleMC, AllenJC, ArcherPC, et al.Studies in human lactation: Milk volume and nutrient composition during weaning and lactogenesis. Am J Clin Nutr1991;54(1):81–92.
16.
OnyangoAW, EsreySA, KramerMS. Continued breastfeeding and child growth in the second year of life: A prospective cohort study in western Kenya. Lancet1999;354(9195):2041–2045.
17.
SimondonKB, SimondonF, CostesR, et al.Breast-feeding is associated with improved growth in length, but not weight, in rural Senegalese toddlers. Am J Clin Nutr2001;73(5):959–967.
18.
BellKA, WagnerCL, FeldmanHA, et al.Associations of infant feeding with trajectories of body composition and growth. Am J Clin Nutr2017;106(2):491–498.
19.
ZhangCY, ZhaoW, PanXP, et al.Effects of feeding patterns during the first 6 months on weight development of infants aged 0–12 months: A longitudinal study. Sci Rep2024;14(1):17451.
20.
RzehakP, OddyWH, MearinML, WP10 Working Group of the Early Nutrition Project. et al.; Infant feeding and growth trajectory patterns in childhood and body composition in young adulthood. Am J Clin Nutr2017;106(2):568–580.
21.
ZongXN, LiH, ZhangYQ, et al.Growth performance comparison of exclusively breastfed infants with partially breastfed and formula fed infants. PLoS One2020;15(8):e0237067.
22.
DevaskarSU, JanzenC, CalkinsKL. Fetal growth restriction: a complex interplay between the intrauterine and maternal environment. In: Fanaroff and Martin’s Neonatal-Perinatal Medicine, 12th ed. (MartinRJ, FanaroffAA., eds.) Elsevier: Philadelphia; 2024; pp. 259–273.
23.
TaverasEM, ScanlonKS, BirchL, et al.Association of breastfeeding with maternal control of infant feeding at age 1 year. Pediatrics2004;114(5):e577–e583; doi: 10.1542/peds.2004-0801
24.
LiR, MagadiaJ, FeinSB, et al.Risk of bottle-feeding for rapid weight gain during the first year of life. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med2012;166(5):431–436.
25.
VenturaAK, HernandezA. Effects of opaque, weighted bottles on maternal sensitivity and infant intake. Matern Child Nutr2019;15(2):e12737; doi: 10.1111/mcn.12737
26.
Moran-LevH, MimouniFB, OventalA, et al.Circadian macronutrient variations over the first 7 weeks of human milk feeding of preterm infants. Breastfeed Med2015;10(7):366–370.
27.
LubetzkyR, MimouniFB, DollbergS, et al.Consistent circadian variations in creamatocrit over the first 7 weeks of lactation: A longitudinal study. Breastfeed Med2007;2(1):15–18.
28.
DanielsL, HeathAL, WilliamsSM, et al.Infant formula feeding practices associated with rapid weight gain: A systematic review. Matern Child Nutr2019;15(3):e12812; doi: 10.1111/mcn.12812
29.
ChengTS, LoySL, CheungYB, et al.Sexually dimorphic response to feeding mode in the growth of infants. Am J Clin Nutr2016;103(2):398–405.
30.
ChantryCJ, DeweyKG, PeersonJM, et al.In-hospital formula use increases early breastfeeding cessation among first-time mothers intending to exclusively breastfeed. J Pediatr2014;164(6):1339–1345.e5; doi: 10.1016/j.jpeds.2013.12.035
31.
ForsterDA, McLachlanHL, LumleyJ. Factors associated with breastfeeding at six months postpartum in a group of Australian women. Int Breastfeed J2006;1:18; doi: 10.1186/1746-4358-1-18
32.
MurrayEK, RickettsS, DellaportJ. Hospital practices that increase breastfeeding duration: Results from a population-based study. Birth2007;34(3):202–211; doi: 10.1111/j.1523-536X.2007.00172.x
33.
Pérez-EscamillaR, Segura-MillánS, CanahuatiJ, et al.Prelacteal feeds are negatively associated with breastfeeding outcomes in Honduras. J Nutr1996;126(11):2765–2773.
34.
SemenicS, LoiselleC, GottliebL. Predictors of the duration of exclusive breastfeeding among first-time mothers. Res Nurs Health2008;31(5):428–441; doi: 10.1002/nur.20275
35.
Rosas-SalazarC, ShiltsMH, TangZZ, et al.Exclusive breastfeeding, the early-life microbiome and immune response, and common childhood respiratory illnesses. J Allergy Clin Immunol2022;150(3):612–621; doi: 10.1016/j.jaci.2022.02.023
36.
WilsonK, GebretsadikT, AdgentMA, et al.The association between duration of breastfeeding and childhood asthma outcomes. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol2022;129(2):205–211; doi: 10.1016/j.anai.2022.04.034
37.
DuboisL, FengC, BédardB, et al.Breastfeeding, rapid growth in the first year of life and excess weight at the age of 2 years: The 3D Cohort Study. Public Health Nutr2022;25(12):3455–3465.
38.
ZhengM, LambKE, GrimesC, et al.Rapid weight gain during infancy and subsequent adiposity: A systematic review and meta-analysis of evidence. Obes Rev2018;19(3):321–332.
39.
BaidalJA, LocksLM, ChengER, et al.Risk factors for childhood obesity in the first 1,000 days: A systematic review. Am J Prev Med2016;50(6):761–779; doi: 10.1016/j.amepre.2015.11.012
40.
HermanKM, CraigCL, GauvinL, et al.Tracking of obesity and physical activity from childhood to adulthood: The physical activity longitudinal study. Int J Pediatr Obes2009;4(4):281–288; doi: 10.3109/17477160802596171
41.
MoschonisG, HalilagicA, KaraglaniE, et al.Likelihood of obesity in early and late childhood based on growth trajectory during infancy. Int J Obes (Lond)2023;47(7):651–658; doi: 10.1038/s41366-023-01310-8
42.
SinghalA. Long-term adverse effects of early growth acceleration or catch-up growth. Ann Nutr Metab2017;70(3):236–240; doi: 10.1159/000464302
43.
KramerMS, MatushL, VanilovichI, et al.A randomized breastfeeding promotion intervention did not reduce child obesity in Belarus. J Nutr2009;139(2):417S–421S.
44.
LiR, ScanlonKS, SerdulaMK. The validity and reliability of maternal recall of breastfeeding practice. Nutr Rev2005;63(4):103–110.
45.
AmissahEA, KeimSA, BooneKM, et al.Validation study of maternal recall on breastfeeding duration 6 years after childbirth. Breastfeed Med2017;12(5):278–285.
