It is becoming more common to use Internet Gaming Disorder (IGD) to measure problematic gaming in online environments. However, there is limited data examining the role of empathy and toxicity in IGD. In addition, little attention has been given to the role of the social element of online gaming communities and its influence on these factors. This article aims to address this gap by presenting the results of a cross-sectional study involving 567 online players who completed an online survey about their gaming habits. More specifically, participants were recruited from four different game communities and asked to complete the Internet Gaming Disorder Scale—Short Form, a toxicity-related questionnaire, and the Interpersonal Reactivity Index. Comparisons between the four game communities were also explored. Findings pointed at significant associations between toxicity, empathy, game community, and IGD, suggesting additional research opportunities and counter strategies for preventing negative experiences with online gaming.
AdachiP. J. C.WilloughbyT. (2016). The longitudinal association between competitive video game play and aggression among adolescents and young adults. Child Development, 87(6), 1877–1892. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12556
2.
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc.
3.
AndersonC.IhoriN.BushmanB. J.RothsteinH. R.ShibuyaA.SwingE. L.SakamotoA.SaleemM. (2010). Violent video game effects on aggression, empathy, and prosocial behavior in eastern and western countries: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 136(2), 151–173. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018251
4.
AndreassenC. S.BillieuxJ.GriffithsM. D.KussD. J.DemetrovicsZ.MazzoniE.PallesenS. (2016). The relationship between addictive use of social media and video games and symptoms of psychiatric disorders: A large-scale cross-sectional study. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 30(2), 252–262. https://doi.org/10.1037/adb0000160
5.
BanduraA. (1965). Influence of models’ reinforcement contingencies on the acquisition of imitative responses. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1(6), 589–595. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0022070
BjörlingE. A.KimA.OlesonK.Alves-OliveiraP. (2022). I am the robot: Teen collaboration in an asymmetric. Virtual reality game. Frontiers of Virtual Reality, 2, Article 746521. https://doi.org/10.3389/frvir
8.
BrockmyerJ. (2015). Playing violent video games and desensitization to violence. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 24(1), 65–77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chc.2014.08.001
9.
CalvertS. L.AppelbaumM.DodgeK. A.GrahamS.Nagayama HallG. C.HambyS.Fasig-CaldwellL. G.CitkowiczM.GallowayD. P.HedgesL. V. (2017). The American psychological association task force assessment of violent video games: Science in the service of public interest. American Psychologist, 72(2), 126–143. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0040413
10.
CanossaA.AzadvarA.HarteveldC.DrachenA.DeterdingS. (2019). Influencers in multiplayer online shooters: Evidence of social contagion in playtime and social play. In BrewsterS.FitzpatrickG.CoxA., & KostakosV. (Eds.), Proceedings of the 2019 CHI conference on human factors in computing systems (pp. 1–12). ACM.
11.
CarrasM. C.Van RooijA. J.Van de MheenD.MusciR.XueQ. L.MendelsonT. (2017). Video gaming in a hyperconnected world: A cross-sectional study of heavy gaming, problematic gaming symptoms, and online socializing in adolescents. Computers in Human Behavior, 68, 472–479. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.11.060
12.
CoyneS. M.StockdaleL. A.GentileD. A.WarburtonW.YangC.MerrillB. M. (2020). Pathological video game symptoms from adolescence to emerging adulthood: A 6-year longitudinal study of trajectories, predictors, and outcomes. Developmental Psychology, 56(7), 1385–1396. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000939
13.
CudoA.KopisN.Zabielska-MendykE. (2019). Personal distress as a mediator between self-esteem, self-efficacy, loneliness, and problematic video gaming in female and male emerging adult gamers. PloS One, 14(12), Article e0226213. https://doi.org/10.1371/journalpone.0226213
14.
CurranP. G. (2016). Methods for the detection of carelessly invalid responses in survey data. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 66, 4–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2015.07.006
15.
DavisM. H. (1980). A multidimensional approach to individual differences in empathy. JSAS Catalog of Selected Documents in Psychology, 10(85), 1–19.
16.
DavisM. H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(1), 113–126. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113
17.
DelhoveM.GreitemeyerT. (2018). The relationship between video game character preferences and aggressive and prosocial personality traits. Psychology of Popular Media, 9(1), 96–104. https://doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000211
18.
DeLisiM.VaughnM. G.GentileD.AndersonC.ShookJ. J. (2013). Violent video games, delinquency, and youth violence: New evidence. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 11(2), 132–142. https://doi.org/10.1177/1541204012460874
19.
EliasG. S.GarfieldR.GutscheraR. K. (2012). Characteristics of Games. The MIT Press.
EuteneuerJ. (2019). Defining games, designing identity, and developing toxicity: Future trends in game studies. New Media & Society, 21(3), 786–790. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444818809716
22.
FalkR. F.MillerN. B. (1992). A primer for soft modeling. University of Akron Press.
23.
FergusonC. J.CopenhaverA.MarkeyP. (2020). Reexamining the findings of the American psychological association’s 2015 task force on violent media: A meta-analysis. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 15(6), 423–1443. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691620927666
24.
FestlR.ScharkowM.QuandtT. (2013). Problematic computer game use among adolescents, younger and older adults. Addiction, 108(3), 592–599. https://doi.org/10.1111/add.12016
25.
FoxJ.GilbertM.TangW. Y. (2018). Player experiences in a massively multiplayer online game: A diary study of performance, motivation, and social interaction. New Media & Society, 20(11), 4056–4073. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444818767102
26.
FoxJ.TangW. Y. (2017). Women’s experiences with harassment in online video games: Rumination, organizational responsiveness, withdrawal, and coping strategies. New Media & Society, 19(8), 1290–1307. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444816635778
27.
GandolfiE. (2018). You have got a (different) friend in me: Asymmetrical roles in gaming as potential ambassadors of computational and cooperative thinking. E-Learning and Digital Media, 15(3), 128–145. https://doi.org/10.1177/2042753018757757
28.
GandolfiE.FerdigR. E. (2021). Sharing dark sides on game service platforms: Disruptive behaviors and toxicity in DOTA2 through a platform lens. Convergence, 2(9), 468–487. https://doi.org/10.1177/13548565211028809
29.
GandolfiE.FerdigR. E.SoyturkI. (2021). Exploring the learning potential of online gaming communities: An application of the game communities of inquiry scale. New Media & Society, 25(6), 1374–1393. https://doi.org/10.1177/14614448211027171
30.
GaoX.WengL.ZhouY.YuH. (2017). The influence of empathy and morality of violent video game characters on gamers’ aggression. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, Article 1863. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01863
31.
GentileD. A.LiD.KhooA.ProtS.AndersonC. A. (2014). Mediators and moderators of long-term effects of violent video games on aggressive behavior. JAMA Pediatrics, 168(5), 450–457. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2014.6
32.
GongX.ZhangK. Z.CheungC. M.ChenC.LeeM. K. (2019). Alone or together? Exploring the role of desire for online group gaming in players’ social game addiction. Information & Management, 56(6), 103–139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.im.2019.01.001
33.
GrayK. L. (2012). Intersecting oppressions and online communities: Examining the experiences of women of color in Xbox live. Information, Communication & Society, 15(3), 411–428. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2011.642401
34.
GrayK. L. (2017). ‘They’re just too urban’: Black gamers streaming on twitch. In DanielsJ.GregoryK.McMillan CottomT. (Eds.), Digital sociologies (pp. 355–368). Policy Press.
35.
GriffithsM. D.KussD. J.KingD. L. (2012). Video game addiction: Past, present, and future. Current Psychiatry Reviews, 8(4), 308–318. https://doi.org/10.2174/157340012803520414
36.
HappC.MelzerA.SteffgenG. (2015). Like the good or bad guy- empathy in antisocial and prosocial games. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 4(2), 80–96. https://doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000021
37.
HartmannT.TozE.BrandonM. (2010). Just a game? Unjustified virtual violence produces guilt in empathetic players. Media Psychology, 13(4), 339–363. https://doi.org/10.1080/15213269.2010.524912
38.
HojatM.DeSantisJ.ShannonS. C.MortensenL. H.SpeicherM. R.BraganL.CalabreseL. H. (2018). The Jefferson scale of empathy: A nationwide study of measurement properties, underlying components, latent variable structure, and national norms in medical students. Advances in Health Sciences Education, 23(5), 899–920. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10459-018-9839-9
39.
HomerB. D.HaywardE. O.FryeJ.PlassJ. L. (2012). Gender and player characteristics in video game play of preadolescents. Computers in Human Behavior, 28(5), 1782–1789. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2012.04.018
40.
HughesC. M.GriffinB. J.WorthingtonE. L. (2017). A measure of social behavior in team-based, multiplayer online games: The sociality in multiplayer online games (SMOG) scale. Computers in Human Behavior, 69, 386–395. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.12.043
41.
JamesG.WittenD.HastieT.TibshiraniR. (2017). ISLR: Data for an Introduction to Statistical Learning with Applications in R. R package version 1.2. Available at: https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=ISLR (accessed February 10 2022).
42.
JerabeckJ.FergusonC. J. (2013). The influence of solitary and cooperative violent video game play on aggressive and prosocial behavior. Computers in Human Behavior, 29(6), 2573–2578. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2013.06.034
43.
JungC. W. (2020a). The role of game genres and gamers’ communication networks in perceived learning. Palgrave Communication, 6(69), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-020-0439-y
44.
JungC. W. (2020b). Role of gamers’ communicative ecology on game community involvement and self-identification of gamer. Computers in Human Behavior, 104(12), 106–164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2019.106164
45.
KowertR.OldmeadowJ. A. (2013). (A) social reputation: Exploring the relationship between online video game involvement and social competence. Computers in Human Behavior, 29(4), 1872–1878. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2013.03.003
46.
KühnS.KugferD. T.WeichenbergerM.WittC.GallinatE. (2018). Does playing violent video games cause aggression? A longitudinal intervention study. Molecular Psychiatry, 24, 1220–1234. https://doi.org/10.1038-018-0031-7
47.
KwakH.BlackburnJ.HanS. (2015). Exploring cyberbullying and other toxic behavior in team competition online games. In Proceedings of the 33rd annual ACM conference on human factors in computing systems (pp. 3739–3748). ACM.
48.
LaiC.PellicanoG. R.AltavillaD.ProiettiA.LucarelliG.MassaroG.LucianiM.AcetoP. (2018). Violence in video game produces a lower activation of limbic and temporal areas in response to social inclusion images. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience, 19, 898–909. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13415-018-00683-y
49.
Lemercier-DugarinM.RomoL.TijusC.OulmannZ. (2021). Who are the Cyka Blyat?” How empathy, impulsivity, and motivations to play predict aggressive behaviors in multiplayer online games. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 24(1), 63–69. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2020.0041
50.
LiQ. (2018). Using R for data analysis in social sciences: A research project-oriented approach. Oxford University Press.
51.
MatosK.O'NeillO.LeiX. (2018). Toxic leadership and the masculinity contest culture: How “win or die” cultures breed abusive leadership. Journal of Social Issues, 74(3), 500–528. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12284
52.
MiedzobrodzkaE.van HooffJ. C.KonijnE. A.KrabbendamL. (2021). Is it painful? Playing violent video games affects brain responses to painful pictures: An event-related potential study. Psychology of Popular Media, 11(1), 13–23. https://doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000290
53.
MonacisL.De PaloV.GriffithsM. D.SinatraM. (2016). Validation of the internet gaming disorder scale–short-form (IGDS9-SF) in an Italian-speaking sample. Journal of Behavioral Addictions, 5(4), 683–690. https://doi.org/10.1556/2006.5.2016.083
54.
MorrisonJ. O.ElzyM.Jelsone-SwainL. (2021). Sex differences in anger states after violent video game play and the relationship of empathy and emotional invalidation as pre-aggressive predictors in young adults. Personality and Individual Differences, 182, Article e111060. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2021.111060
55.
MurnionS.BuchananW. J.SmalesA.RussellG. (2018). Machine learning and semantic analysis of in-game chat for cyberbullying. Computers & Security, 76, 197–213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cose.2018.02.016
56.
PaulC. A. (2018). The toxic meritocracy of video games: Why gaming culture is the worst. University of Minnesota Press.
57.
PetryN. M.O'BrienC. P. (2013). Internet gaming disorder and the DSM- 5 [Editorial]. Addiction, 108(7), 1186–1187. https://doi.org/10.1111/add.12162
58.
PléL.DemangeotC. (2020). Social contagion of online and offline deviant behaviors and its value outcomes: The case of tourism ecosystems. Journal of Business Research, 117(C), 886–896. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2019.06.002
59.
PontesH. M.GriffithsM. D. (2015). Measuring DSM-5 internet gaming disorder: Development and validation of a short psychometric scale. Computers in Human Behavior, 45, 137–143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2014.12.006
60.
PoonL. Y.TsangH. W.ChanT. Y.ManS. W.NgL. Y.WongY. L.LinC. Y.ChienC. W.GriffithsM. D.PontesH. M.PakpourA. H. (2021). Psychometric properties of the internet gaming disorder scale–short-form (IGDS9-SF): Systematic review. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 23(10), Article e2682. https://doi.org/10.2196/26821
61.
PrescottA. T.SargentJ. D.HullJ. G. (2018). Metaanalysis of the relationship between violent video game play and physical aggression over time. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 115(40), 9882–9888. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1611617114
62.
PrzybylskiA. K.DeciE. L.RigbyC. S.RyanR. M. (2014). Competence-impeding electronic games and players’ aggressive feelings, thoughts, and behaviors. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 106(3), 441–457. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0034820
63.
PulosS.ElisonJ.LennonR. (2004). Hierarchical structure of the interpersonal reactivity Index. Social Behavior and Personality, 32(4), 355–360. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2004.32.4.355
64.
RStudio Team. (2021). RStudio: Integrated Development Environment for R. RStudio. Available at: http://www.rstudio.com/ (accessed March 5 2022).
65.
SchaefersT.WittkowskiK.BenoitS.FerraroR. (2016). Contagious effects of customer misbehavior in access-based services. Journal of Service Research, 19(1), 3–21. https://doi.org/10.1177/10946705155950
66.
SchmierbachM. (2010). “Killing spree”: Exploring the connection between competitive game play and aggressive cognition. Communication Research, 37(2), 256–274. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650209356394
67.
ShenC.SunQ.KimT.WolffG.RatanR.WilliamsD. (2020). Viral vitriol: Predictors and contagion of online toxicity in world of tanks. Computers in Human Behavior, 108, Article 106343. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2020.106343
68.
ShiJ.RenwickR.TurnerN. E.KirshB. (2019). Understanding the lives of problem gamers: The meaning, purpose, and influences of video gaming. Computers in Human Behavior, 97, 291–303. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2019.03.023
69.
ShinD. (2018). Empathy and embodied experience in virtual environment: To what extent can virtual reality stimulate empathy and embodied experience?Computers in Human Behavior, 78, 64–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.09.012
70.
ShinD. (2019). How does immersion work in augmented reality games? A user-centric view of immersion and engagement. Information, Communication and Society, 22(9), 1212–1229. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2017.1411519
71.
ShinD.AhnD. (2013). Associations between game use and cognitive empathy: A cross-generational study. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 16(8), 599–603. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2012.0639
72.
ShinD.BioccaF. (2018). Exploring immersive experience in journalism what makes people empathize with and embody immersive journalism?New Media & Society, 20(8), 2800–2823. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444817733133
73.
SofiaF. M.KlimenkoM. A. (2019). Hey! listen! just because it’s violent doesn’t mean it’s immoral. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 8(3), 251–258. https://doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000171
74.
SpadaM. M.CaselliG. (2017). The metacognitions about online gaming scale: Development and psychometric properties. Addictive Behaviors, 64, 281–286. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2015.07.007
75.
SquireK. (2010). From information to experience: Place-based augmented reality games as a model for learning in a globally networked society. Teachers College Record, 112(10), 2565–2602. https://doi.org/10.1177/016146811011201001
76.
StarcevicV.ChoiT. Y.KimT. H.YooS. K.BaeS.ChoiB. S.HanD. H. (2020). Internet gaming disorder and gaming disorder in the context of seeking and not seeking treatment for video-gaming. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 129, 31–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2020.06.007
77.
StavropoulosV.BeardC.GriffithsM. D.BuleighT.GomezR.PontesH. M. (2018). Measurement invariance of the internet gaming disorder scale–short-form (IGDS9-SF) between Australia, the USA, and the UK. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 16(2), 377–392. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-017-9786-3
78.
SylvesterT. (2013). Designing games: A guide to engineering experiences. O’Reilly Media.
79.
SzycikG. R.MohammadiB.MunteT. F.WildtB. T. (2017). Lack of evidence that neural empathy responses are blunted in excessive users of violent video games: An fMRI study. Frontiers in Psychology, 8(174), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00174
80.
TangW. Y.ReerF.QuandtT. (2019). Investigating sexual harassment in online video games; How personality and context factors are related to toxic sexual behaviors against fellow players. Aggressive Behavior, 46(1), 127–135. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21873
81.
TangW. Y.ReerF.QuandtT. (2020). The interplay of gaming disorder, gaming motivations, and the dark triad. Journal of Behavioral Addictions, 9(2), 491–496. https://doi.org/10.1556/2006.2020.00013
82.
TaylorT. L. (2018). Watch Me Play: Twitch and the Rise of Game Live Streaming. Princeton University Press.
83.
TribertiS.MilaniL.VillaniD.GrumiS.PeracchiaS.CurcioG.RivaG. (2018). What matters is when you play: Investigating the relationship between online video games addiction and time spent playing over specific day phases. Addictive Behaviors Reports, 8, 185–188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.abrep.2018.06.003
84.
WartbergL.KristonL.ThomasiusR. (2020). Internet gaming disorder and problematic social media use in a representative sample of German adolescents: Prevalence estimates, comorbid depressive symptoms and related psychosocial aspects. Computers in Human Behavior, 103, 31–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2019.09.014
85.
World Health Organization. (2019). International statistical classification of diseases and related health problems (11th ed.). World Health Organization. Available at: https://icd.who.int/ (accessed January 17 2022).
86.
YouS.KimE.LeeD. (2017). Virtually real: Exploring avatar identification in game addiction among massively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPG) players. Games and Culture, 12(1), 56–71. https://doi.org/10.1177/1555412015581087
87.
ZajacK.GinleyM. K.ChangR. (2020). Treatments of internet gaming disorder: A systematic review of the evidence. Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics, 20(1), 85–93. https://doi.org/10.1080/14737175.2020.1671824
ZhuC.HuangS.EvansR.ZhangW. (2021). Cyberbullying among adolescents and children: A comprehensive review of the global situation, risk factors, and preventive measures. Frontiers in Public Health, 9, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2021.634909
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
