The purpose of this article is to describe how organizations have evolved across three periods of modern economic history. These periods can be called the age of competition, age of cooperation, and age of collaboration. The major organizational forms that appeared in each of the three eras, including their capabilities and limitations, are discussed.
AppleyD. G.WinderA. E. (1977). An evolving definition of collaboration and some implications for the world of work. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 13, 279-291.
4.
AshbyW. R. (1956). Introduction to cybernetics. London, England: Chapman & Hall.
5.
BengtssonM.KockS. (2000). “Co-opetition” in business networks—To cooperate and compete simultaneously. Industrial Marketing Management, 29, 411-426.
6.
BenklerY. (2002). Coase’s penguin, or, Linux and the nature of the firm. Yale Law Journal, 112, 369-446.
7.
BøllingtoftA.MüllerS.UlhøiJ. P.SnowC. C. (2012). Collaborative communities of firms: Role of the shared services provider. In BøllingtoftA.DonaldsonL.HuberG. P.HåkonssonD. D.SnowC. C. (Eds.), Collaborative communities of firms: Purpose, process, and design (pp. 89-104). New York, NY: Springer.
8.
BrandenbergerA. M.NalebuffB. J. (1997). Co-opetition. New York, NY: Doubleday.
9.
CastellsM. (1996). The rise of the network society. Oxford, England: Blackwell.
10.
ChandlerA. D. (1962). Strategy and structure: Chapters in the history of the industrial enterprise. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
11.
ChesbroughH. W. (2003). Open innovation: The new imperative for creating and profiting from technology. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.
12.
DahlO-J.NygaardK. (1966). SIMULA—An ALGOL-based simulation language. Communications of the ACM, 9, 671-678.
13.
DavisR.SmithR. G. (1983). Negotiations as a metaphor for distributed problem solving. Artificial Intelligence, 20, 63-109.
14.
DavisS. M.LawrenceP. R. (1977). Matrix. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
15.
DeciE. L.RyanR. M. (1975). Intrinsic motivation. New York, NY: Plenum Press.
16.
DyerJ. H.SinghH. (1998). The relational view: Cooperative strategy and resources of interorganizational competitive advantage. Academy of Management Review, 23, 660-679.
17.
EvansM. (2003). Evolution of cooperation. In WestM. A.TjosvoldD.SmithK. G. (Eds.), International handbook of organizational teamwork and cooperative working (pp. 45-54). New York, NY: Wiley.
18.
FjeldstadØ. D.SnowC. C.MilesR. E.LettlC. (2012). The architecture of collaboration. Strategic Management Journal, 33, 734-750.
19.
GalbraithJ. R. (1974). Organization design: An information processing view. Interfaces, 4(3), 28-36.
20.
GalbraithJ. R. (2008). Designing matrix organizations that actually work: How IBM, Proctor & Gamble and others design for success. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
21.
GawerA.CusumanoM. A. (2002). Platform leadership: How Microsoft, Intel, and Cisco drive industry innovation. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.
22.
GrayB. (1989). Collaborating: Finding common ground for multiparty problems. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
23.
Hayes-RothB. (1985). A blackboard architecture for control. Artificial Intelligence, 26, 251-321.
24.
HerzbergF. (1966). Work and the nature of man. Cleveland, OH: World Publishing.
25.
JensenM. C.MecklingW. H. (1976). Theory of the firm: Managerial behavior, agency costs, and ownership structure. Journal of Financial Economics, 3, 305-360.
26.
KetchenD. J.ThomasJ. B.SnowC. C. (1993). Organizational configurations and performance: A comparison of theoretical approaches. Academy of Management Journal, 36, 1278-1313.
MeeJ. F. (1964). Ideational items: Matrix organization. Business Horizons, 7(2), 70-72.
32.
MilesG.SnowC. C.SharfmanM. P. (1993). Industry variety and performance. Strategic Management Journal, 14, 163-177.
33.
MilesR. E.MilesG.SnowC. C. (2005). Collaborative entrepreneurship: How communities of networked firms use continuous innovation to create economic wealth. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
34.
MilesR. E.MilesG.SnowC. C.BlomqvistK.RochaH. (2009). The I-form organization. California Management Review, 51(4), 59-74.
35.
MilesR. E.SnowC. C. (1978). Organizational strategy, structure, and process. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
36.
MilesR. E.SnowC. C. (1984). Fit, failure, and the hall of fame. California Management Review, 26(3), 10-28.
37.
MilesR. E.SnowC. C. (1986). Organizations: New concepts for new forms. California Management Review, 28(3), 62-73.
38.
MilesR. E.SnowC. C. (1994). Fit, failure, and the hall of fame: How companies succeed or fail. New York, NY: Free Press.
39.
OlsonM. (1965). The logic of collective action: Public goods and the theory of groups. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
40.
OstromE. (1990). Governing the commons: The evolution of institutions for collective action. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
41.
PenroseE. (1959). The theory of the growth of the firm. New York, NY: Wiley.
42.
PorterM. E. (1990). The competitive advantage of nations. New York, NY: Free Press.
43.
PowellW. W.KoputK. W.Smith-DoerrL. (1996). Interorganizational collaboration and the locus of innovation: Networks of learning in biotechnology. Administrative Science Quarterly, 41, 116-145.
44.
SimonH. A. (1962). The architecture of complexity. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 106, 466-482.
45.
SloanA. P.Jr. (1964). My years with General Motors. Garden City, NY: Doubleday.
46.
SnowC. C.FjeldstadØ. D. (2015). Network paradigm: Applications in organizational science. In WrightM. (Ed.), International encyclopedia of the social & behavioral sciences, 2nd ed. (pp. 546-550). London, England: Elsevier.
47.
SnowC. C.FjeldstadØ. D.LettlC.MilesR. E. (2011). Organizing continuous product development and commercialization: The collaborative community of firms model. Journal of Product Innovation Management, 28, 3-16.
48.
SnowC. C.HrebiniakL. G. (1980). Strategy, distinctive competence, and organizational performance. Administrative Science Quarterly, 25, 317-336.
49.
SnowC. C.MilesR. E.ColemanH. J. (1992). Managing 21st century network organizations. Organizational Dynamics, 19, 5-20.
50.
SnowC. C.MilesR. E.MilesG. (2005). A configurational approach to the integration of strategy and organization research. Strategic Organization, 3, 431-439.
51.
SnowC. C.ThomasJ. B. (1993). Building networks: Broker roles and behavior. In LorangeP.ChakravarthyB.RoosJ.Van de VenA. (Eds.), Implementing strategic processes: Change, learning, and cooperation (pp. 217-238). Oxford, England: Blackwell.
52.
StabellC. B.FjeldstadØ. D. (1998). Configuring value for competitive advantage: On chains, shops, and networks. Strategic Management Journal, 19, 413-437.
53.
SullivanL. H. (1896). The tall office building artistically considered. Lippincott’s Magazine, 57, 403-409.
54.
SurowieckiJ. (2004). The wisdom of crowds. New York, NY: Doubleday.
55.
TeeceD. J. (1980). The diffusion of an administrative innovation. Management Science, 26, 464-470.
56.
ThompsonR. S. (1983). Diffusion of the M-form structure in the U.K.: Rate of imitation, inter-firm and inter-industry differences. International Journal of Industrial Organization, 1, 297-315.
57.
ThorelliM. B. (1986). Networks: Between markets and hierarchies. Strategic Management Journal, 7, 37-51.
58.
UdyS. H. (1959). Organization of work: A comparative analysis of production among nonindustrial peoples. New Haven, CT: Human Relations Area Files Press.
59.
von KroghG. (1998). Care in knowledge creation. California Management Review, 40(3), 133-153.
60.
WheelwrightS. C.ClarkK. (1992). Revolutionizing product development. New York, NY: Free Press.
61.
WilliamsonO. E. (1975). Markets and hierarchies: Analysis and antitrust implications. New York, NY: Free Press.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
